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PRESENTED BY

THE

GEEMANIA AND AGBICOLA

TACITUS,

ENGLISH NOTES, CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY, FROM THE

BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES ; THE REMARKS OF

BoTTICHER ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS; AND

A COPIOUS GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

CHARLES ANTH.0N, LL.D.,

PROFESSOR OF THE GSEEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE,
NEW YORK, AND HECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL.

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

82 CLIFF STREET.

1 8 5 0.

T A en ok

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
eight hundred and forty-seven*, by

Harper & Brothers,

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District
of New York.

am from
Mr. James McKirdhp
J*n. 19,1932

H .,RY DRISLER, A,M,

ADJUNCT PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA

COLLEGE,

EiiiH asrorft ts 33etrfcateTr,

AS A MEMORIAL OF LONG AND UNINTERRUPTED FRIENDSHIP,
AND A SINCERE TESTIMONIAL

OF RESPECT

FOR ABILITIES OF A HIGH ORDER, UNITED TO ACCURATE,
EXTENSIVE, AND UNTIRING SCHOLARSHIP.

CONTENTS.

Preface „ vii

Life and Writings of Tacitus xi

Chronological Table xvii

Remarks on the Style of Tacitus xxi

The Germania 1

The Agricola 25

Notes on the Germania 55

Notes on the Agricola 132

Index to Remarks on the Style of Tacitus 213

Geographical Index .217

Stemma of the Family of Augustus , 249

PREFACE.

The basis of the present work is the English edition
of Dr. Smith, published in 1840, the notes to which
are principally selected from the commentaries of
Ruperti, Passow, and Walch. It has been the object
of the American editor to render these notes still more
useful by additional selections from the works of
other scholars, and by a more frequent translation of
difficult or obscure passages. One great defect in the
English edition is the omission of almost all special
reference to the authorities whence the notes have
been obtained. The American editor has endeavor-
ed to supply this deficiency, as far as lay in his power,
more particularly in the commentary on the Germa-
nia. The notes on the Agricola, in the English edi-
tion, are pretty much one continuous selection from
the excellent commentary of Walch, to which, how-
ever, the American editor has added much valuable
information obtained from the same source, as well
as from other quarters.

The result, therefore, is, that the student is here
presented with the richest and most extensive com-
mentary on the Germania and Agricola that has
ever appeared in the English language. This re-
mark is not made in any feeling of arrogance. The
American editor claims little for himself beyond the
mere selection of materials, and therefore feels per-

V]ll PREFACE.

fectly at liberty to express his opinion of the value
of those materials. The notes of Walch, in particu-
lar, on the Agricola, which consist, in the original,
of more than three hundred closely printed octavo
pages, form undoubtedly, as has been remarked by
the English editor, " one of the most valuable com-
mentaries ever published upon any classical author."

The " Remarks on the Style of Tacitus," appended
to the English edition, and reprinted in this, are trans-
lated from a work of Botticher, " De vita, scriptis, ac
stilo Taciti" Berlin, 1834, and which, to borrow again
the language of Dr. Smith, " is well known to be a
very excellent introduction to the study of the style
and writings of Tacitus." The Geographical Index
is confined, as will be perceived, to the Germania, and
enters somewhat fully into the subsequent movements
of the German tribes. The Geography of Britain,
being of minor importance, has been explained at
once in the notes to the Agricola. The materials for
the Index have been obtained in a great measure from
the commentary in the English edition, and the pres-
ent work will be found to have gained in this way a
decided advantage by the separation of the geograph-
ical from the explanatory matter. It is a great, but
very common mistake, to suppose that the ancient
Geography of Germany and Britain, especially the
former, requires at the present day but little elucida-
tion. The student needs only to turn over a few
pages of Mannert to perceive how utterly erroneous
is such an opinion.

It remains but to give a list of the different editions
of Tacitus, as well as of the other works from which
aid has been obtained for the present volume.

PREFACE. IX

1. Taciti Opera, ed. Brotier, Glasg., 1796, 4 vols., 4to.

2. Taciti Opera, ex recensione Emesti, ed. Oberlin, Oxon., 1813,

4 vols., 8vo.

3. Taciti Opera, ed. Walther, Hal. Sax., 1831, seqq., 4 vols., 8vo.

4. Taciti Opera, ed. Imm. Bekker, Lips., 1831, 2 vols., 8vo.

5. Taciti Opera, ed. Exter, Bipont., 4 vols., 8vo.

6. Taciti Opera, ed. Naudet, Paris, 1820, 5 vols., 8vo. (Lemaire's

Collect.)

7. Taciti Opera, ed. Valpy (In Us. Delph.), Lond., 8 vols., 8vo.

8. Phil. Cluveri Germanise Antiquse Hb. iii., Lugd. Bat., ap. Elz.,

1616, fol.

9. Taciti Gerrnania, vollstandig erlautert, von Dilthey, Braun-

schw., 1823, 8vo.

10. Taciti Gerrnania, ed. Gerlach, Basil., 1835, 8vo.

11. Taciti Geraiania, ed. Weishaupt, Solod., 1844, 8vo.

12. La Germanie de Tacite, par Panckoucke, Paris, 1824, 8vo.

13. Tacitus's Agrikola, ed. Walch, Berlin, 1828, 8vo.

14. Taciti Agricola, ed. Dronke, Fuldae, 1834, 8vo.

15. Taciti Agricola, ed. Becker, Hamburg, 1826, 8vo.

16. Germany and Agricola of Tacitus, ed. Barker, Lond., 1824.

17. Tacitus's Germany, Agricola, &c, ed. Smith, Lond., 1840.

18. Des C. C. Tacitus sammtliche Werke ubersetzt von Botticher,

Berlin, 1834, 2 vols., 8vo.

19. Lexicon Taciteum, scripsit Guil. Botticher, Berolini, 1830, 8vo.

20. Tacite, traduit par Dureau de Lamalle, ed. Noel, Paris, 1828,

6 vols., 8vo.

21. La Vie d'Agricola, et des Moeurs des Germains, par M. l'Abbe

de la Bleterie, Paris, 1788, 12mo.

22. Germany and Agricola of Tacitus, by John Aikin, M.D., 4th

ed., Oxford, 1823, 12mo.

23. Works of Tacitus, by Murphy, N. Y., 1822, 6 vols., 8vo.

24. Mannert, Geschichte der alten Deutschen, &c, Stuttg., 1829,

8vo.

26. Adelung, aelteste Geschichte der Deutschen, Leipz., 1806, 8vo.

26. Menzel, Geschichte der Deutschen, Stuttg 1837, 4to.

27. Luden, Geschichte der Deutschen, Gotha, 1825, 2 vols., 8vo.

28. Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und Romer (vol. ii. and iii.).

29. Schirlitz, Handbuch der alten Geographie, Halle, 1837, 8vo.

X PREFACE.

30. Krase, Archiv. fur alte Geographie, &c, Breslau, 1821, seqq.,

12mo.

31. Kruse, Deutsche Alterthiimer, Halle, 1824, seqq., 12mo.

32. Klemm, Germanische Alterthumskunde, Dresden, 1836, 8vo.

33. Reicliard, Sammlung kieiner Schriften, &c, Guns, 1836, 8vo.

34. Bohmens heidnische Opferplatze, Graber, &c, Prag.. 1836, 8vo.

35. Barth, iiber die Druiden der Kelten, Brlangen., 1826, 8vo.

36. Graff, Althochdeutscher Sprachschalz, &c, Berlin, 1834-8, 4

vols., 4to.

37. Du Cange, Glossarium medis et infimae Latinitatis, ed. Hen-

schel, Paris, 1840, seqq., 4to.

It is the intention of the editor to publish at some
future day select portions of the " Annals" and "His-
tories," and also the " Dialogue on the Causes of the
Decline of Eloquence." In the mean time, he hopes
that the present volume may not be unsuccessful in
enabling the student to cultivate an acquaintance
with a part of the writings of Tacitus.

Columbia College, N. Y., Aug. 18th, 1847.

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS.*

u Caius Cornelius Tacitus was probably born in the reign of
Nero, but neither the place of his birth, nor the exact date, is known,
nor is any thing ascertained of his parentage. There is no reason for
supposing that he belonged to the illustrious patrician gens of the
Cornelii, nor any evidence of his having been born at Interamna, in
Urnbria (the modern Terni), as is sometimes stated. The few facts
of his life are chiefly collected from his own works, and from the
letters of his friend, the younger Pliny. Tacitus was about the same
age as Pliny, but the elder of the two. Pliny was born about A.D.
61, in the reign of Nero, which commenced A.D. 54. A passage of
the elder Pliny (H. N.t vii., 16) speaks of a son of Cornelius Tacitus,
the procurator of the emperor in Belgic Gaul. Lipsius concludes that
this Cornelius Tacitus was the historian; but as Pliny died in A.D.
79, it seems hardly probable that the passage can apply to him. It
has been conjectured that the procurator was the father of the historian.

" Tacitus states that he owed his first promotion to Vespasian, and
that he was indebted for other favors to his successors, Titus and
Domitian (Hist., i., 1). In the year A.D. 77, C. Julius Agricola, then
consul, betrothed to him his daughter ; and the marriage took place
after Agricola's consulship. Tacitus does not state what places he
filled under Vespasian and Titus, but in the reign of Domitian he in-
forms us that he assisted as one of the Quindecimviri, at the celebra-
tion of the Ludi Sseculares, which event took place in the fourteenth
consulship of Domitian (A.D. 88). At that time he was also praetor
(Ann., xi., 11 ). He was not at Rome when his father-in-law, Agricola,
died there (A.D. 93), in the reign of Domitian ; but it is too much to
affirm, as some have done, that he was an exile during the time of
this emperor. It has already been shown that he was at Rome m
A.D. 88. A passage in his Life of Agricola (c. 45) rather leads to
the inference that he was at Rome during many of the atrocities
which Domitian perpetrated after the death of Agricola, though he
had been absent from Rome for four years prior to Agricola's death.
On the decease of T. Virginius Rufus, in the reign of Nerva (A.D. 97),

* Fenny Cyclopedia, vol. xxiiL, p. 504, scqq.

Xll LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS.

he was appointed Consul Suffectus, and Pliny enumerates it as the
crowning event to the good fortune of Virginhis, that his panegyric
was pronounced by the Consul Cornelius Tacitus, the most eloquent
of speakers.

" Tacitus is recorded by his friend Pliny as one of the most eloquent
orators of his age. He had already attained to some distinction as
an advocate when Pliny was commencing his career. In the reign
of Nerva, Pliny and Tacitus were appointed by the senate (A.D. 99)
to conduct the prosecution of Marius Priscus, who had been proconsul
of Africa, and was charged with various flagrant crimes. On this
occasion Tacitus replied to Salvius Liberalis, who had spoken in de-
fence of Priscus. His reply, says Pliny, was most eloquent, and
marked by that dignity which characterized his style of speaking.
(Plin., Ep., ii., 11.)

" The contemporaries of Tacitus were Quintilian, the two Plinies,
Julius Floras, Maternus, M. Aper, and Vipsanius Messala. He was
on terms of the greatest intimacy with the younger Pliny, in whose
extant collection of letters there are eleven epistles from Pliny to
Tacitus. In one of these letters (vi., 16) Pliny describes the circum-
stance of the death of his uncle, Pliny the elder, and the letter was
purposely written to supply Tacitus with facts for his historical works.
It is not known when Tacitus died, nor whether he left any children.
The Emperor Tacitus claimed the honor of being descended from him,
but we have no means of judging of the accuracy of the emperor's
pedigree; and Sidonius Apollinaris (Ep., lib. iv., ad Polemium) men-
tions the historian Tacitus among the ancestors of Polemius, a prefect
of Gaul in the fifth century of our era.

" The extant works of Tacitus are the ' Life of Agricola,' ' the
Treatise on the Germans,' ' Histories,' 'Annals,' and the ' Dialogue on
Orators; or, the Causes of the Decline of Eloquence.' None of his
Orations are preserved.

" The ' Life of Agricola' is one of the earliest works of Tacitus, and
must have been written after the death of Domitian (A.D. 96). The
Prooemium, or Introduction to it, was written in the reign of Trajan,
and the whole work probably belongs to the first or second year of
that emperor's reign. As a specimen of biography, it is much and
justly admired. Like all the extant works of Tacitus, it is unencum-
bered with minute irrelevant matter. The life and portrait of Agricola
are sketched in a bold and vigorous style, corresponding to the dig-
nity of the subject. The biographer was the friend and son-in-law of
Agricola, whom he loved and revered, but he impresses his reader
with a profound conviction of the moral greatness of Agricola, his
courage, and his prudence, without ever becoming his panegyrist.

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. X1U

The l Life of Agricola' was not contained in the earliest editions of
Tacitus.

" The ' Germany' of Tacitus has been the subject of some discussion
as to its historical value. The author does not inform us whence he
drew his materials for the description of the usages of these barbari-
ans, many of whom could only be known by hearsay even to the
Roman traders and adventurers on the frontiers of the empire. The
work contains numerous minute and precise details, for which it must
be assumed that the writer had at least the evidence of persons con-
versant with the German tribes on the frontiers ; and there is nothing
in the description of Tacitus which is substantially at variance with
what we know of the early Germans from other sources. The sound-
est conclusion is, that the picture of the Germans is in the main cor-
rect; otherwise we must assume it to be either a mere fiction, or a
rhetorical essay founded on a few generally known facts ; but neither
of these assumptions will satisfy a careful reader.

" The ' Histories,' which were written before the ' Annals,' and
after the death of Nerva, comprehended the period from the accession
of Galba to the death of Domitian ; to which it was the author's in-
tention to add the reigns of Nerva and Trajan (Hist., i., 1). There
are only extant the first four books and a part of the fifth, and these
comprehend little more than the events of one year, from which we
may conclude that the whole work must have consisted of many
books. Unfortunately, the fifth book contains only the commence-
ment of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus.

" The ' Annals' comprehended the history of Rome from the death
of Augustus to the death of Nero, a peiiod of fifty-two years, which
ended with the extinction of the Julian house in Nero. A part of the
fifth book of the l Annals' is lost ; the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth,
the beginning of the eleventh, and the end of the sixteenth and last
book, are also lost. These last portions comprehended the whole reign
of Caligula, the first years of Claudius, and the last two years of Nero's
reign. It is said that the preservation of the historical works of
Tacitus is due to the Emperor Tacitus ( Vopisc, Tacit., 10), who
caused them to be transcribed ten times a year, and copies to be
placed in the libraries. But the works of Tacitus, and more particu-
larly the ' Annals,' were neglected during the decline of the empire,
and few copies of them were preserved. The first five books of the
1 Annals' were not found till the beginning of the sixteenth century,
when they were discovered in the Abbey of Corvey, in Westphalia,
and published at Rome, in 1515, by Philip Bervaldus.

" The Dialogue on the Decline of Eloquence may have been writ-
ten in the reign of Vespasian : it is at least probable that it is an early

XIV LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS.

work of Tacitus. It has been sometimes doubted if it is by Tacitus,
but the style is in favor of the common opinion, though it presents in
many respects a marked contrast to the ' Annals,' the work of his
mature years. Messala, one of the speakers, attributes the decline
of oratory to the neglect of the arduous method of study adopted by
the older orators, who learned their art by attaching themselves to
some eminent speaker, and by experience in the actual business of
life : in Messala's time, the school of the rhetoricians was the only
place of discipline for the young. But Maternus, another speaker,
indicates more truly the causes of the decline of eloquence, by a ref-
erence to the political condition of the Romans, and the suppression
of their energies under the empire, as compared with the turbulent
activity of the Republican period.

" The ' Annals' of Tacitus are the work of his riper age, on which
his historical reputation mainly rests. Though entitled Annals, and
in general sufficiently true to the chronological order of events, the
title of Annals conveys no exact notion of the character of this work.
The writer moulded the matter of his history, and adapted it to his
purpose, which was not a complete enumeration of the domestic and
foreign events of the period, but a selection of such as portrayed in
the liveliest colors the character of the Romans. The central figure
in this picture is the imperial power, and the person who wielded it,
the Princeps, and every event is viewed in relation to him. The no-
tion of the Romans of the age of Tacitus is inseparably associated
with the notion of the government of one man. The power that had
been founded and consolidated by Augustus had been transmitted
through many princes, few of whom had distinguished themselves
by ability, and some had sullied the purple with the most abominable
crimes. Yet the imperial power was never shaken after it was once
firmly established, and the restoration of the old Republic was never
seriously contemplated by any sober thinker. The necessity of the
imperial power was felt, and the historian, while he describes the
vices and follies of those who had held it, and often casts a glance
of regret toward the Republican period, never betrays a suspicion
that this power could be replaced by any other, in the abject and
fallen state of the Roman people. It is this conviction which gives
to the historical writings of Tacitus that dramatic character which
pervades the whole, and is seen in the selection of events, and the
mode in which they are presented to the reader. It is consistent
with this that the bare facts, as they may be extracted from his nar-
rative, are true, and that the coloring with which he has heightened
them may often be false. This coloring was his mode of viewing
the progress of events, and the development of the imperial power :

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. XV

the effect, however, is, that the reader often overlooks the bare his-
torical facts, and carries away only the general impression which the
historian's animated drama presents.

" Tacitus had formed a full, and, it may be, a correct conception
of the condition of the empire in his own time, and the problem
which he proposed to himself was, not only to narrate the course of
events from the close of the reign of Augustus, but to develop their
causes. {Hist., i., 4.) For his 'Annals,' at least, he could claim, as
he does, the merit of strict impartiality : he lived after the events
that he describes, and, consequently, had no wrongs to complain of, no
passions or prejudices to mislead him. {Ann., i., 1.) He observes,
also, in the commencement of his ' Histories,' that neither Galba,
Otho, nor Vitellius had either conferred on him any favor or done
him any injury. To Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian he acknowledges
his obligations. The reign of Domitian is, unfortunately, lost; but
we may collect from the expressions in the ' Life of Agricola' (c. 43,
45, &c.) that the favors which Tacitus had received did not save this
contemptible tyrant from the historian's just indignation.

" The tone which characterizes the historical works of Tacitus is
an elevation of thought which had its foundation in the moral dignity
of the writer, and the consciousness of having proposed to himself a
noble object. He was a profound observer of character : it was his
study to watch the slightest indications in human conduct, and by
correctly interpreting these outward signs, to penetrate into the hid-
den recesses of the heart. His power of reaching those thoughts
which are often almost unconsciously the springs of a man's actions,
has, perhaps, never been equalled by any historical writer. Tacitus
had lived through a time when the value of the lessons of philosophy
had to be tested by their practical application, and his historical stud-
ies carried him through a period in which the mass were sunk in
sensuality, and the really good and great had no consolation but in
the consciousness of their own thoughts. Though he appears to be-
long to no sect of philosophers, his practical morality was of the Stoic
school, the only school which, in those degenerate times, could sus-
tain the sinking spirits of the Romans, and which, even under favor-
able circumstances, guided the conduct of the wise Cornelius, the
noblest man that ever possessed sovereign power. The religions
opinions of Tacitus partook of the character of his age : he had no
strong convictions, no settled belief of a moral government of the
world: his love of virtue and his abhorrence of vice were purely
moral; they had no reference to a future existence. {Ann., iii., 18;
vi., 22.) In one of his earliest productions he hopes, rather than ex-
pects, that the souls of the departed may still live, and be conscious

XVI LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS.

of what is passing on earth. (Agric, 46.) But in his latest writings
there are no traces that his hopes or his wishes had ever ripened
into a belief.

" The style of Tacitus, especially in his ' Annals,' is the apt expres-
sion of his thought : concise, vigorous, and dramatic. He has, per-
haps, attained as great a degree of condensation as is compatible with
perspicuity ; sometimes his meaning is obscured by his labor to be
brief. His historical works are especially works of art, constructed on
a fixed principle, and elaborated in obedience to it. He loves to dis-
play his rhetorical skill, but he subdues it to his dramatic purpose.
It is a fault that his art is too apparent, that his thoughts are some-
times imperfectly or obscurely expressed, that he affects an air of
mystery, that his reflections on events are often an inseparable part
of them, and, consequently, the impressions which it is his object to
produce can only be rectified by the vigorous scrutiny of a matured
mind. Yet those who have made Tacitus a study generally end in
admiring him, even for some of those qualities which at first repelled :
almost every word has its place and its meaning, and the contrast
between the brevity of the expression and the fullness of the thought,
as it marks the highest power of a writer, so it furnishes fit matter
for reflection to those who have attained a like intellectual maturity.

" Tacitus must have had abundant sources of information, though
he indicates them only occasionally. He mentions several of those
historians who lived near his own time, as Vipsanius Messala and
Fabius Rusticus ; he also speaks of the memoirs of Agrippina and oth-
ers. The Orationes Principum, the Fasti, the Acts of the Senate,
and the various legislative measures, were also sources of which he
availed himself. It has been already intimated that the minute de-
tail of events was often foreign to the purpose of Tacitus, and, accord-
ingly, he is sometimes satisfied with giving the general effect or
meaning of a thing, without aiming at perfect accuracy. Thus we
can not always collect with certainty from Tacitus the provisions of
the Senatus Consulta of which he speaks ; and for the purpose of any
historical investigation of Roman legislation, his statements must
sometimes be enlarged or corrected by reference to other sources,
and particularly to the * Digest.' "

TABLE

OF THE LIFE AND TIMES OF TACITUS.

Caius Cornelius Tacitus was probably born in
this year, at Interamna, in Umbria, called at the
present day Terni.

Claudius dies on the 13th of October, and is suc-
ceeded by Nero.

Quintus Veranius succeeds Aulus Didius in the
command of Britain, and dies in the same year.

Quintus Veranius is succeeded in the command of
Britain by Suetonius Paulinus, fifth consular
legatus, who is accompanied, most probably,
by Agricola as military tribune.

[Agricola was at that time twenty-two or
twenty-three year3 of age. He was born on
the 13th of June, A. D. 37, at Forum Julii (Fre-
jus) in Gaul.]

Expedition of Paulinus to Mona. General insur-
rection of the Britons under Boadicea.

Suetonius Paulinus is succeeded by Petronius Tur-
pilianus, sixth consular legatus. Agricola (aged
twenty-five) returns to Rome, marries Domitia
Decidiana, and is a candidate for the queestor-
ship.

Agricola (aged twenty-six) quaestor in Asia. His
eldest son dies after the birth of a daughter.
Nero marries Poppgea.

Petronius Turpilianus is succeeded by Trebellius
Maximus, seventh consular legatus. Britain, as
far as Angle sea, mostly under the Roman do-
minion. Agricola returns to Rome, and spends
the rest of the year in quiet.

Agricola (aged twenty-eight) tribune of the plebs.
Piso's conspiracy against Nero. Seneca and
Lucan put to death. Great fire at Rome. Per-
secution of the Christians.

Agricola (aged twenty-nine) is a candidate for the
praetorship. Tacitus receives instructions from
some of the most celebrated rhetoricians of his
time ; among others, from Marcus Aper, Julius
Secundus, and Quintilian. Death of Psetus
Thrasea.

Agricola (aged thirty) is praetor.

Nero put to death on the 9th of June. He is suc-
ceeded by Galba, who intrusts to Agricola (aged

A.D.

A.U.C.

806

Age of
Tacitus,

807

811

59
60

812
813

7
8

814

815

816

817

818

819

820
821

15
16

XV111

TABLE OF THE LIFE

822

70
71

74
75
76

78
79

81
84

823

824

826
827
828
829
830

831

832

833

834
837

838

Age of
Tacitus,

18
19

22
23
24
25

29
32

thirty-one) the investigation respecting the treas-
sures of the temples.

Galba is put to death on the 15 th of January, and
is succeeded by Otho. Otho's partisans, at the
plunder of Intemelium, kill Agricola's mother, in
the beginning of April. Otho dies on the 16th of
April, and is succeeded by Vitellius. Vespasian
is proclaimed emperor in Egypt and Judaea.
Agricola (aged thirty-two) joins Vespasian's
party. Vitellius dies on the 21st of December.
Mutiny of the soldiers in Britain against Trebel-
lius Maximus, who is succeeded in the command
by Vettius Bolanus, eighth consular legatus.

Agricola (aged thirty-three) is intrusted with the
command of the twentieth legion in Britain.
Jerusalem taken by Titus.

Vettius Bolanus is succeeded by Petilius Cerialis,
the ninth consular legatus. Tacitus begins to
speak in public.

Agricola (aged thirty-six) returns to Rome, and be-
comes a patrician.

Agricola (aged thirty-seven) commences his gov-
ernment of the province of Aquitania.

Cerialis succeeded by Julius Frontinus, the tenth
consular legatus.

Frontinus subdues the Silures. Agricola (aged
thirty-nine) recalled from Aquitania.

Agricola (aged forty) consul suffectus in July,
August, and September. He betroths his
daughter, who was at that time scarcely four-
teen, to Tacitus, and gives her to him in mar-
riage after his consulship.

Agricola (aged forty-one) succeeds Frontinus in
the command of Britain. He conquers the Or-
do vices and subdues the island of Mona. Taci-
tus is appointed vigintivir and quaestor.

Vespasian dies on the 23d of June, and is succeed-
ed by Titus. Agricola (aged forty-two) ad-
vances as far as the Solway Frith, and subdues
almost the whole of England. Introduces civil-
ization among the Britons.

Tacitus either sedile or tribune of the plebs. Agric-
ola (aged forty-three) subdues the southern na-
tions of Scotland as far as the Frith of Tay.

Titus dies on the 15th of September, and is suc-
ceeded by Domitian.

Agricola (aged forty-seven) defeats the Caledonians
under Calgacus at the Grampian Hills. The
Roman fleet sails round the north and west
coasts of Britain. Expedition of Domitian
against the Catti.

Agricola (aged forty-eight) is recalled from Britain,
and is succeeded by Sallustius Lucullus.

AND TIMES OF TACITUS.

XiX

A.D.

86
87

88
89

A.U.C.

839

840

Age of

Tacitus.

841
842

843

844

846

847

849

850

851

100

853

101

854

105

858

36
37

Appius Sabinus and the Roman army are defeated
by the Dacians under Decebalus.

Several Roman armies are defeated in Moesia,
Dacia, Germany, and Pannonia. The public
voice calls for Agricola as general. Domitian
sets out for Dacia, and remains in Mcesia.

Tacitus praetor. The Ludi Sceculares are per-
formed.

Unsuccessful expedition of Domitian against the
Marcomanni and Quadi. Civica put to death.
The philosophers are banished from Rome by
Domitian.

Agricola (aged fifty-three) declines the province
of Asia. Tacitus retires with his wife from
Rome.

Triumph of Domitian.

Death of Agricola on the 23d of August. Tacitus
returns to Rome. Helvidius the younger, Aru-
lenus Rusticus, and Herennius Senecio condemn-
ed to death.

Second banishment of the philosophers from Rome.

Domitian is put to death on the 18th of September,
and is succeeded by Nerva.

Tacitus consul. He writes and publishes his
Agricola in this year. Nerva adopts Trajan on
the 19th of September.

Nerva dies on the 27th of January, and is succeed-
ed by Trajan.

Tacitus, in conjunction with Pliny, accuses Marius
Priscus, proconsul of Africa, of extortion in the
administration of this province.

Trajan makes war against the Dacians and defeats
them, and eventually reduces Dacia into the
form of a Roman province.
Tacitus appears to have lived till the time of

Hadrian, who succeeded Trajan, A.D. 117 ; but he

took no part in public affairs after his consulship.

Note. The preceding table is taken from the English edition, and
differs, as will be perceived, from the Account of the Life and Writ-
ings of Tacitus, in relation to the birth-year and native place of the
historian. In a matter of this kind, where no certainty can be ar-
rived at, the variation becomes comparatively unimportant.

REMARKS

STYLE OF TACITUS.

REMARKS

STYLE OF TACITUS,

TRANSLATED* FROM THE LATIN OF WILHELM BOETTICHER.

Tacitus generally preserved in his language the usage of former
writers, and chiefly of the historians ; and only departed from it in
such a degree as to improve and increase certain peculiarities which
the ancient writers sometimes display in single instances, and in
which they, too, have mostly followed the language of the poets. It
is true, he adopted the usage of his age, and indulged his own pecul-
iar genius in new constructions, and in the formation of compound
words ; but he never, in these instances, transgressed the laws of his
native tongue : like a great legislator, wTho best provides for the com-
mon welfare by retaining, on the one hand, the customs of antiquity,
while he also employs his own genius in inventing laws which are
better and more suited to the demands of his age.

There are, indeed, many passages in his writings which are render-
ed obscure by a conciseness almost intricate and abrupt ; many which,
departing from the common mode of speech, call for much attention
in the reader. But just as the milk-like exuberance of Livy and the
wonderful clearness of Cicero delight the minds of their readers, and
gratify them with a pleasure which is presented, as it were, spon-
taneously, and obtained by no great labor ; so the brevity of Tacitus,
obscure, indeed, but never unpleasing, never impenetrable to the
edge of genius — while it calls forth all the reader's strength, and
never suffers his mind to be inactive, but always engages him more
and more in new efforts to imbibe deeply the loftiest and most
beautiful sentiments — fills and pervades with a joy assuredly not in-
ferior, nay, imperishable, the minds of those who come to the perusal
of the works of Tacitus, not as to thickets bristling with thorns, but
as to a consecrated grove, glimmering with a doubtful but holy light.

Now the laws which Tacitus has followed in the composition of his
writings, and the sources from which chiefly all those things proceed
which constitute the peculiarity of his style, may be most convenient-
ly referred to variety, which we may also call copiousness; to brevity,
on which the force of language depends ; and to the poetical complexion
* By Mr. Philip Smith, B.A., University College, London.

XXIV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

of his narrative* This three-fold division, therefore, we shall carry-
out in such a manner as, by observing some certain order, to enumer-
ate all the peculiarities of the style of Tacitus, either as examples of
the variety, or of the brevity, or of the'poetical complexion, by which
his style is marked ; but with this restriction, that many peculiarities
can not be described in words and brought under rules ; and we think
it sufficient to have collected here examples of each kind, and thus
to have pointed out to the students of Tacitus the road by which they
may arrive at a fuller knowledge of that writer.

ON THE VARIETY OF THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

Of all writers, Tacitus has taken most pains to vary both single
words and the composition of sentences. In this quality he was pre-
ceded chiefly by Livy and Sallust. And the care of Livy, in this re-
spect, indicates copiousness and exuberance ; but that of Sallust an
affectation of antiquity. The reason of this peculiarity Tacitus him-
self plainly enough declares. For he says that "his labor was in a
restricted space, and inglorious;" that "the positions of nations, the
vicissitudes of battles, the triumphant deaths of generals, interest and
refresh the minds of readers; but he had to string together cruel
mandates, perpetual accusations, treacherous friendships, the ruin of
innocent men, and causes which had the same issue, things strikingly
similar even to satiety. "t

It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that, in collecting the me-
morials of past events, he should have taken pains to acquire that
variety which presented itself spontaneously to the writers of the old
republic, in order to avoid burdening and wearying the minds of his
readers by expressing in the same words events perpetually recurring.
As to the fact that for this very end he used certain ancient forms
and words, and interspersed them in his narrative, we know that
though he retained as much of all ancient things as was proper and
becoming, yet he did not despise the more polished style of his own
age.t

* But it must be observed that, in many passages, all these qualities are united ;
so that in his very brevity there appear at the same time variety and a poetical
complexion.

t Annals, iv., 32, 33 : " Nobis in arto et inglorius labor." " Situs gentium, varietates
prceliorum, clari ducum exitus retinent ac redintegrant legentium animum : no3
saeva jussa, continuas accusationes, fallaces amicitias, perniciem innocentium, et
easdem exitu causas conjungimus, obvia rerum similitudine et satietate."

X See the Dialogus de Oratoribus, c. 22 : " Variet compositionem ; nee omnes
clausulas uno et eodem modo determinet." And c. 18: "Non esse unum elo-
quentiae vultum," &c.

ITS VARIETY. XXV

The following are examples of his variety :

I. His modes of writing words are various.

a. Inrumpere and irrumpere, adstitit and astitit, adlicere and allicere,
adpellere and appellere ; colloqui, colligere, and conloqui, conlectus ;
offundere and obfundere ; accelerare, accolere, accursus, and adceler are,
adcolere, adcursus.

b. Cotidie and quotidie; promiscus, promisee, and promiscuus, pro-
miscue; abisse and abiisse, epistula and epistola; volgus, volnus, voltus,
convolsus, revolsus, mavoltis, and vulgus, vulnus, &c. ; and also, in some
places, scevom, pravom, alvom, captivom, donativom avonculo, for the
common scevum, pravum, &c. ; tegumen, tegimen, and tegmen ; balnece
(balnea) and balinece ; claudere and cludere; inclulus and inclitus;
quotiens, totiens, viciens, septuagiens, and quoties, toties, &c. ; trans-
mitter e, transnatare, and tramittere, tranatare ; vinculum and vinclum;
Hercule and Hercle ; libido, and once lubido ; altissumus, optumus, op-
tumates, proxumus (these examples are found each only once in
Tacitus), and altissimus, &c. ; monimentum and monumentum; decu-
mus and decimus, &c. ; urgere and urguere, intellegere and intelligere,
oreretur and oriretur, poteretur and potiretur, detractare and detrectare.

II. Words are variously inflected.

a. Tigranen, Tigranem, Lirin, Turesim; the accusative plural
ending in is of participles and adjectives chiefly, less frequently of.
substantives, is interchanged with the common form ; as, imminentis,
omnis, tris, navis ; the genitive which ends in urn with the common
termination in arum; deum (very rarely deorum), liberum, posteriori
(Annal., in., 72), quindecimvirum (Annal., vi., 12); parentum and
parenUum. By a poetical usage received from the writers of the
Silver Age, we read in AnnaL, iv., 41, salutantum for salutantium,
and several examples of the same kind occur repeatedly. Cai, Cnei,
Cceselli, Patulei, Rubelli, Pacari, but Tiberii, Pompeii, &c. ; di, dis,
dii, diis, and deis ; quibus, and not less frequently quis. The dative
ending in u is very frequent in Tacitus, as well as the common term-
ination ; as, luxu, nuru, metu, decursu, cruciatu. Csesar, who uses that
form more frequently, generally give3 nothing else but magistrate
equitatu, exercitu.

b. Heteroclite and defective words : plebes, plebei (gen. and dat),
and plebs, plebis, plebi (so in Cicero, Livy, and other former waiters) ;
juventa, senecta, (senium), poetical words, and juventus, senectus (after
Livy's example) ; but juventus in Tacitus always mean3 youths, ju-
venta no less constantly the age of youth ; nouns are both of the first
and fifth declension in the nominative (as is usual), in the accusative,

XXVI ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

and in the ablative cases : materia and materies, mollitia and mollities,
duritia and durities (so, also, in Cicero), with an obsolete genitive,
AnnaL, iii., 34, multa duritie veterum in melius et Icetius mutata, un-
less it is better to take duritie for the ablative, with ex understood.
Oblivio and {Hist., iv., 9) oblivium (the plural oblivia occurs frequent-
ly in the poets), obsidio and obsidium (so Varro, Plautus, Sallust),
which in Tacitus, indeed, is the same as obses, AnnaL, xi., 10, Meher-
daten — obsidio nobis datum. So he uses consortium for the common
consortio (as Liv., iv., 5) ; alimonium, AnnaL, xi., 16, after Varro's
example ; but Plautus, Suetonius, Gellius, Apuleius, use alimonia, ce.
Eventus and (what is not an uncommon word with Cicero) eventum,
AnnaL, iv, 33, plures aliorum eventis docentur ; prcetextu and (Hist.,
ii., 100; iii., 80; as in Seneca and Suetonius) prcetexto ; Vologeses,
genitive Vologesis and Vologesi, dative Vologeso, accusative Vologesen,
ablative Vologese. Add to these decus and decor (as in the writers
of the same age); sonos and (the poetical form) sonor ; honos and
honor; satietas and (Sallust) satias; sexus and (Sallust, Livy) secus;
munera and munia (and this frequently); muri and moenia (compare
Hist., iii., 30, near the end) ; gratia and grates; exanimus, exanimis ;
semermus, semermis; inermus, inermis ; claritudo, claritas ; jirmitudo,
Jirmitas.

c. Heterogeneous words: loci and loca, where they refer to a
country, are used indifferently by Tacitus ; other writers, less fre-
quently, use loci. In AnnaL, xv., 32, loci are the seats in a theatre ;
on the other hand, Livy and Vellius call them loca. Arguments,
which are treated of in a debate or speech, and also passages or sen-
tences of speeches or books, are called by all writers, and Tacitus
likewise, loci. Some names of cities ending in a are both feminine
and neuter ; Artaxata, Hierosolyma, and others.

III. The following examples will prove how great is the variety
and copiousness of Tacitus in the actual use of words.

a. The word auris is used by no writer so often and so variously ,
for he gives aures prcebere, adire, perstringere, advertere, imbuere, vi-
tare, polluere, obstruere, verberare, offendere; ad aures conferre, perve
nire ; auribus obtemyerare, auribus non satis competere, aures respuunt.
agnoscunt aliquid ; diver sitas, fastidium aurium ; oratio auribus judi-
cum accommodata ; diver sissimarum aurium copia ; cognitce populi au-
res; aures adrectiores, trepidce, lentce, promtce, pronce, superbce, cequcc,
apertce, ita formates. Two reasons may be given why Tacitus so often
used this word: first, because he was an orator, on which account
most examples of it are furnished by his Dialogue concerning Ora-
tors; and, therefore, Cicero, also, and Quintilian often use this word,

ITS VARIETY. XXV11

secondly, because, in describing times which, to use his own words,
had destroyed by prosecutions the intercourse of speaking and hear
ing, and recalled the recollection of the well-known ear* of the ty
rant Dionysius, he was able, by the use of this mode of speech, to ex-
press with the greatest propriety and effect many things which be-
longed to the wicked arts of tyranny and slavery.

b. There is generally a variety of the same kind in describing
hidden and secret things. Thus to palam are opposed secreto, intus,
domi, per occultum, per occulta, in occulto, privatim, furtim, secretis
criminationibus, occultis nuntiis, inter secreta convivii, voto; Anna!.,
xvi., 7, mortem Poppcece ut palam iristem, ita recordantibus Icetam;
Hist., i., 10, palam lau dares ; secreta male audiebant; propala?n — se-
cretis nuntiis, secretis promissis.

c. Since Tacitus had to mention frequent deaths, he has in these,
also, used very great variety: relinquendce vitce certus ; finis sponle
sumtus, qucesita mors; suo ictu mortem invenire, finem vitce sibi ponere,
sumere exitium, voluntario exitu cadere, sua manu cadere, mortem sponte
sumere, se vita privare, se ipsum interficere (and inter fectus also is used
in a rather unusual way of voluntary death in Annal., i., 2, interfecto
Antonio : compare Hist., i., 53, occiso Nerone), voluntate exstingui, vim
vitce sum adferre, vitam abstinentia finire, egestate cibi perimi, venenum
haurire,gladio incumbere, senili manu ferrum tentare ; venas, brachia ex-
solvere, resolvere, abrumpere, inter scindere, abscindere, interrumpere, in-
cider e, aperire rursum; levem ictum venis inferre; defungi, exstingui,
obire, concedere, oppetere, finire, fato fungi, fato obire, fato concedere,
morte fato propera auferri, mortem obire, moHalitatem explere, finem
vitce implere, supremum diem explere, concedere vita, cedere vita, vitam
finire; mors (mortes), obitus, ex cessus, finis; Dial., 18, fatalis et meus

dies.

d. Propinqua vespera, flexo in vesperam die, vesperascente die, in-
umbrante vesper a, prcecipiti in occasum die, extremo die, sero diet, ob-
scuro diei.

e. Those phrases, also, are changed which it is the usual custom
not to alter; as, aqua et igni interdicere {Annal., iii., 38 ; iv., 21), aqua
et igni arceri {Annal. , hi., 50), aqua atque igni prokiberi {Annal., xvi.,
12).

f. Particles are varied more frequently than in other writers : kaud
and non, haudquaquam, nequaquam ; dein, deinde ; exin, exinde ; proin,
proinde; modo — modo and interim — quandoque, modo — nunc, modo—
ecce nunc; erg a, and, with the same signification, contra, adversus, in ;
penes and ad, in, apud ; juxta and ad, apud. They serve for a transi-

* A combination of passages, by which Dionysius is said to have been able to
overhear the words of his captives as he sat in his palace.

XXV111 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

tion : his atque (ac, et) talibus, his et pluribus, ceterum, dehinc, hint, ad
hoc, ad hcec (besides) ac, et, inter quce, interea, per idem tempus, sub idem
tempus, interim, simul, proinde, exinde, deinde, igitur (seldom itaque)
ergo, at, at Hercule (Hercle).

IV. Tacitus is also remarkable for great copiousness and variety of
words ; because, besides the words received in common use, he like-
wise frequently uses such as are found only in single passages in the
writers of the former age ; because, too, he adopted those words
with which the poets of every age, and the writers of his own time,
enriched the Latin tongue; and, lastly, because he himself discov-
ered and composed many new words; as, centurionatus, exstimulator,
instigatrix, inturbidus, quinquiplicare, prceposse, provivere, pervigere,
super stagnare, superurgere. And he followed the same plan in the
meanings of words, not only combining the different senses which
they had at different times, but also referring them, according to his
own taste, to other things which bore some degree of affinity to the
things which other writers had used those words to express. Of this
I will give the following examples :

a. As in Cicero we read adducere habenas, in Seneca adducere vul-
tum ad tristitiam, in Quintilian adducta frons; so in Tacitus, with a
slight change in the meaning of the word, AnnaL, xii., 7, adductum
(i. e., severum, rigidunx) et quasi virile servitium; xiv., 4, familiaritate
juvenili — et i~ursns adductus; and Tacitus alone appears thus to have
used the adverb, adductius {regnari, imperitare), in Germ., 34, and
Hist., iii., 7.

b. Expedire, 1. As in its common use, is the same as prceparare,
parare, as arma, alimenta, iter, concilium; Annal., xiv., 55, qui me non
tantum prcevisa, sed subita expedire docuisti, concerning facility of
speech. 2. Then in the same sense as exponere: examples of this
meaning are furnished by Terence, Virgil, and other, poets; Annal.,
iv., 1, nunc originem, mores — expediam, and so frequently. 3. Tacitus
alone appears to have used it absolutely for expeditionem suscipere ;
Hist., i., 10, nimice voluptates cum vacaret ; quotiens expedierat mag-
net virtutes; chap, lxxxviii., multos — secum expedire jubet; but exactly
in the same way, ducere is used for ducere exercitum, not only by Tac-
itus, but much oftener by Livy.

c. Externus, besides its common use, in which it simply applies to
foreign nations; as, Annal., xi., 16, ire externum ad imperium, is also in
Tacitus synonymous with hostilis; Hist., iv., 32, ut absisteret hello,
neve externa armis falsis velar et; iii., 5, ne inter discordias (Romano-
rum) externa moiirentur. In the same manner diversus is used by
Tacitus of things relating to enemies and opposing parties; as. Annal,,

ITS VARIETY. XXIX

xiv., 30, stabat pro litlore diversa (the hostile) acies ; Hist., iii., 5, ne
majore ex diver so mercede (received from their adversaries) jusfasque
exuerent; and diversus is generally synonymous with alienus, abhor-
reus ab aliqua re : Anna!., ii., 2, diversus a majorum institutis; vi., 33,
diversa induere (espouse different sides ; but thus Livy, also, speaks of
diversi auctores.

V. In the grammatical construction of words the very great
variety of the style of Tacitus is discovered.

a. The singular and plural numbers are interchanged : miles, eques
(used, also, of those wTho are of equestrian rank), veteranus, legiona-
rius, and miliies, equites, &c, and more often, indeed, than in former
writers: Annal., vi., 35, cum Parthus — distraheret turmas, Sarmatce —
contis gladiisque ruerent ; Hist., iii., 59, Samnis Pelignusqueet Marsi.
The plural, used for the sake of majesty, i3 often joined with the sin-
gular: Annal., iv., 11, ut peter em ab Us, quorum in manus cur a nostra
venerit, &c, Agr., 43, nobis nihil comperti adfirmare ausim.

b. Different cases are joined together : Annal., xii., 29, legionem —
pro ripa componeret, subsidio victis et terrorem adversus victor es ; Hist.,
i., 53, corpore ingens, animi immodicus ; Annal., xv., 59, nomen mulieHs
Arria Galla, priori marito Domitius Silus : and the same cases with
different significations: Germ., 35, occidere solent, non disciplina ci
severitate> sed impetu et ira; Hist., ii., 22, molares ingenti pondere acfra-
gore provolvunt.

c. The dative, accusative, genitive, and prepositions are used in
the same kind of construction : promptus rei, in rem, ad rem; inrum-
pere terram, in terram, ad terram ; Annal., xiv., 38, cvjus adversa pravi-
tati ipsius, prospera ad fortunam rei publico referebat, unless you prefer
taking this as a zeugma; xii., 55, vim cultoribus et oppidanis ac pie-
rumque in mercatores — audebant; Annal., iv., 1, sui obtegens, in alios
criminator ; xiii., 21, ultionem in delatores et pramia amicis obtinuit.
(See below, on the Brevity of the Style of Tacitus, iii., 1.)

d. There is the greatest variety in the mode of comparison. 1.
The usual construction quo — tanto, quanto — tanto, scite magis quam
probe, avidius quam consultius. 2. The positive, or other words
which have its force, is used for the comparative in almost the same
manner as we read in Agr., 4, vehementius quam caute : Annal., i., 68,
quanto inopina, tanto majora offunduntur ; c. 74, quantoque incautius
efferverat, poznitentia patiens tulit (compare Livy, i., 25, Romani —
Horatium accipiunt eo majore cum gaudio, quo prope metum res
fuerat); iv., 67, quanto intentus olim — tanto resolutus. Compare
Livy, xxi., 48, quantum elatus — tanium anxius. 3. Tanto is trans-
posed; Annal., i., 81, speciosa verbis — quantoque majore libertatis

XXX ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

imagine tegebantur, tanto erwptura ad infensius servitium. 4. Tanto
or eo is omitted: Annal., ii., 5, quanto acriora — studia militum et
aversa (see No. 2) patrui voluntas, celerandce victoria intentior; Hist.,
iii., 58, quanto quis clarior, minus fidus. Compare Livy, xxv., 38, quo
audacius erat (consilium) magis placebat. 5. Plura is omitted : AnnaL,
iii., 5, tanto plura decora mox tribui par fuisse, quanto prima fors ne-
gavisset. 6. Eodem actu is put for tanto; Hist., i., 12, qui in dies
quanto potentior, eodem actu invisior erat. 7. Quam is used alone,
meaning more than, magis or potius being omitted: Hist., iii., 60,
prcedce quam periculorum socius ; Annal., iv., 61, claris majoribus
quam vetustis. Compare Livy, vii., 8, multiplex quam pro numero
damnum est. 8. Also the more unconimon construction, Annal., iii.,
8, quern haud fratris interitu trucem, quam — cequiorem sibi sperabat,
put for non tarn — quam, or tantum abest ut — ut.

e. Adjectives and genitive cases are mixed together: Annal., ii., 3,
Armenia — inter Parthorum et Romanas opes infida : xii., 14, ex quis
Izates Adiabeno, mox Acbarus Arabum cum exercitu abscedunt.

f. Verbs are variously and, indeed, rather uncommonly construct-
ed: fungi officiis and officia, potiri flagitii, honoribus, regiam (by
archaism), adipisci aliquid and rerum, dominationis (so in Tacitus
alone) ; prcesidere alicui rei and (what there seems to be no example
of in other writers) Medos, Pannoniam : jubere alicui tributum ; Ger-
manos — non juberi, non regi ; Annal., xi., 32, jussit ut Britannicus et
Octavia — pergerent ; xiii., 15, Britannico jussit exsurgeret ; chap. 40,
quibus jusserat ut — resisterent. Compare Terence, Andria, ii., 5, 1, me
jussit — observarem; Cicero also, Livy, and others sometimes join this
verb with the dative. So with many verbs is joined the infinitive
and ut, ne, quod; also, the preposition ad and the particle ut are in-
terchanged; e. g., Annal., ii., 62, haud leve decus Drusus qucesivit il-
liciens Germanos ad discordias, utque fracto jam Maroboduo usque in
exitium insisteretur. The historical present and perfect are joined to-
gether: Annal., ii., 7, Ccesar — jubel; ipse — sex legiones eo duxit; c.
20. Seio Tuberoni legato tradit equitem campumque ; peditum aciem
ita instruxit ut, &c. ; i., 39, perduci ad se Plancum imperat, recepitque
in tribunal. — " There are those who ascribe such things to negligence
in the author. But he seems to me to have thus adjusted them de-
signedly, like a skillful workman, so as to distinguish wisely and with
a polished taste what words should flow with a more animated, and
what with a more tranquil course. " — ( Walther on the Annals, ii., 7.)
[n the same way he places together the historical present, the his-
torical infinitive, and the perfect: Annal., iii., 20, Eodem anno Tac-
farinas — bellum in Africa renovat, vagis primum populationibus —
dein vicos exscindere, trahere graves pr&das, postremo — cohortem

IT& VARIETY. XXXi

Romanam circumsedit ; xii., 51, conjux gravida — toleravit; post —
ubi quati uterus et viscera vibrantur, orare ut, &c. ; xv., 27, simul con-
silio terrorem adjicere, et Megistanas Armenios — pellit sedibus, &c.

g. There is great variety in the syntax of particles: AnnaL, i.,1>,
per acies aut proscriptione cadere; ii., 70, ea Germanico haud minus
ira quam per metum accepta; AnnaL, xi., 32, ut quis reperiebatur in
publico aut per latebras; iv., 51, nox aliis in audaciam, aliis ad for-
midinem opportuna. — Germ., 20, sororum filiis idem apud avunculum
qui ad patrem honor ; AnnaL, vi., 22, tristia in bonos, l&ta apud de-
teriores esse.

VI. Constructions of different kinds are often mingled to-
gether; and after beginning with some one form of speech, he passes
abruptly, and without regarding the law of uniformity, to another.
Thus very often «the passive and active voices are mixed up together:
AnnaL, vi., 44, nihil omissum quo ambiguos illiceret, promti firmaren-
tur; iv., 44, Albim transcendit, longius penetrata Germania quam quis-
quam priorum. Compare Livy, xxii., 6, quce Punica religione servata
Jides ab Hannibale est, atque in vincula omnes conjecit. — The accusa-
tive, the accusative with the infinitive, the finite tenses of the verb
and particles, are mingled together: AnnaL, xv., 50, dum scelera
principis et finem adesse imperio, deligendumque qui — succurreret inter
se — jaciunt; Hist., iv., 4, promsit sententiam ut honorificam in bonum
principem, ita falsa aberant. (Compare AnnaL, iii., 30, fato poten-
tly— an satias capit.) AnnaL, iv., 38, quod alii mcdestiam, multi,
quia diffideret, quidam ut degeneris animi inter pretabantur. Compare
Sallust's Catiline, 10, avaritia — superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere,
omnia venalia habere edocuit. — The participle, gerund, finite tenses
of the verb, and particles are placed together: AnnaL, L, 62, quod
Tiberio haud probatum, sew cuncta Germanici in deterius trahenti, *
sive — credebat; iii., 31, absentiam — meditans, sive ut — impleret; xiii.,
11, orationibus, quas Seneca testifcando quam honesta prceciperet vel
jactandi ingenii — vulgabat; c. 47, socors ingenium ejus in contrarium
ir aliens callidumque et simulatorem interpretando. He passes from
what is called the oblique narration to the direct (as Livy, i., 13, 47
57): AnnaL, iv., 40, ad ea Tiberius — principum diversam esse sortem,
falleris enim Sejane. &c. ; Hist., iii., 2, ad ea Antonius Primus — festi
nationem ipsis utilem. " Duce tunc Pannonicce ac M&sicce aim perru
pere hostem," &c. See, also, the heads Syllepsis and Zeugma, in the
remarks on the Brevity of his Style, V.

VII. In the position of words, Tacitus indulges in variety above
other writers, following chiefly the practice of his own age, and he

XXX11 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

even sometimes inverts those phrases which other writers are wont
to preserve constantly in a certain order; as, AnnaL, xi., 35, consulto
senatus, (See above, III., e.)

a. Cognomens, or agnomens, are even placed before names ; and
in the same way, a term signifying the dignity and office with which
any one is endowed, is expressed before the name itself, as Agrippa
Postumus and Postumus Agrippa, M. Annceus hucanus and Lucanus
Annceus, Asinius Pollio and Pollio Asinius (thus Cicero, also, has Pollio
Asinius), Antonius Primus and Primus Antonius; dictator Ccesar and
Ccesar dictator (as in Cicero, rex Deiotarus; in Livy, rex Prusias) ;
imperator Augustus, Augustus imperator ; but when this dignity was
perpetual, from the age of Julius Csssar downward, the title of im-
perator (as before, in general, that of dictator) used to be placed be-
fore the proper name. Compare Suetonius ( Cces., 76), honores nimios
recepit — prcenomen imperatoris. So, besides the common arrangement,
prcetor Antistius, procurator Marius, augur Lentulus (as in Livy we
have consul JEmilius, consul Sulpicius). Add to these, tribunus plebis,
and plehei, and plebis (plebei) tribunus.

b. Together with the common order of the particles we find an
anastrophe of the prepositions and conjunctions after the manner of
the poets, which is admitted also, though less often, by other writers,
chiefly of the Silver Age: Amisiam et Lupiam amnes inter, disjectas
inter et vix pervias arenas, sedes inter Vestalium : prceturam intra
stetit, unum intra damnum; and thus are used super, extra, ultra, con-
tra, penes, propter, juxta, apud, ad, and ab : AnnaL, v., 9, vanescente
quamquam plebis ira (so Cicero) ; AnnaL, i., 5, acribus namque cus-
todies domum — sepserat (so Livy very often) ; AnnaL, ii., 15, classem
quippe (Cicero) ; Hist., ii., 17, inritabat quin etiam (Capitolinus) ;
Dial., 6, illis quin immo (in other writers very rare, and every where
having the first place); AnnaL, xi., 30, frueretur immo Us (Plautus);
Germ., 30, durant siquidem colles (Pliny the elder).

c. With the remarks we have made above (VI.) on the mixture of
constructions may be compared the Synchysis, which Quintilian calls
a mixture of words, and of which Livy likewise furnishes not a few
examples: AnnaL, i., 10, Pompeianarum gratiam partium; xii., 65,
seu Britannicus rerum sen Nero potiretur; xiv., 2, tradit Cluvius
ardor e retinendce Agrippinam potential eo usque provectam, ut, &c. ;
c. iv., pluribus sermonibus, modo familiar itate juvenili Nero et i-ursus
adductus — tracto in longum convictu, prosequitur abeuntem ; hi., 42, in-
conditam muliitudinem adhuc disjecit, that is, incondiiam adhuc. You
may also refer Tmesis to this head : AnnaL, xiii., 50, acri etiam populi
Romani turn libertate; Dial., 31, neque enim dum arie et scientia, fee.,
that is, nondum enim; Hist., i., 20, at illis vix decumes super portiones
erant.

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXX111

ON THE FORGE AND BREVITY OF THE STYLE OF
TACITUS.
All agree, without any hesitation, that the peculiar character of
Tacitus' s. style is seen most in the concise brevity of his language ;
and those who have looked into it more closely, till they have even
explored all the inmost recesses of his sometimes abrupt diction, pre-
fer Tacitus to all other writers for this very reason, and admire the
divine aspect of his genius, which, the nearer they approach it, and
the more intently they hang upon its contemplation, so much the
more deeply penetrates the minds of the beholders. But if you ask
whence proceeds and what means that taciturn brevity, and where-
fore it is that you are sometimes moved by it in the inmost corner of
your heart, seek the answer from actual life, both that of Tacitus and
your own. Many were then (as now they are, if we would honest-
ly confess it) the faults, the vices, the crimes of men, with but rare
examples of substantial, well-tried virtue ; great were envy and the
ignorance of right ; many were the mockeries that were made of the
affairs of men, and the empty dissensions of the populace; while but
very few then, as in bur own time even by no means all, were seek-
ing better and higher things. And as it by no means becomes us,
who are blessed with the hopes and consolations of the Christian
faith, to mourn over those things which are faulty in our own age
with the same grief as that with which we behold a Roman, who ac-
counted nothing to be loftier and grander than the hereditary glory
and majesty of his country, mourning over the common corruption of
all things, and over the republic falling headlong to ruin ; «o we sure-
ly can not blame in Tacitus that kind of bitter pleasure, and that in-
dignant sparing of words, by which, that he might not, like Sue-
tonius, impose too heavy a burden on his own and his readers' sense
of shame by narrating every thing at length with a disgusting loqua-
city, he has generally conveyed a deeper meaning than his word3
express.*

I. And, first, in the very collocation of his words there is a cer-
tain force and brevity : non is sometimes separated from its verb and
placed first, to increase the force of the sentence ; as, AnnaL, vi., 32,

* The most important passage for discovering the feelings from which this pe-
culiarity of the style of Tacitus proceeded is that in the Germania (33), where,
with as deep emotion as he has ever shown, he says, maneat quaso duretque genti*
bus, &c. Compare, also, AnnaL, hi, 55, at the end, and^r., 2, 3 : dedimus pro-
fecto grande patientia documentum — ademto per inquisitiones et loquendi audiendiqus
commercw, Scc.—prope ad ipsos exacted atatis terminos per silenthim venimus.

XXXIV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

sed non Tiberius omisit incepta; chap, xxxviii., non enim Tiberium,
quamquam triennio post ccedem Sejani — tempus, preces, satias mitiga-
bant; Hist., ii., 70, at non Vitellius ftexit oculos. Frequently a word
is placed first, to imply tacitly the converse of what is stated ; as, An-
naL, iii., 2, miserat duas prcetorias eohortes Ccesar, but did not come
himself. Not unfrequently some particle is implied in the word
which is put first; as, AnnaL, ii., 39, vivere (adhuc) Agrippam; chap,
xl., postremo dot negoiium Sallustio (tandem certus consilii).

II. The force of the language depen4s often on single words.

a. On frequentatives, which are repeatedly used by Tacitus (and
Sallust) : some, indeed, he alone employs, as infensare, redemtare ;
in contemporary authors, also, and the writers of a later age, we find
appellitare, adsultare, auctitare, despectare, suspectare (i. e.f suspectum
habere), emtitare, mansitare, prcetentare. But it must be well ob-
served, that it is not always the force of the language which depends
on these words ; but that they also often express an attempt, and that
a vain one (as loqui cosptare), and in this way, also, assist the brevity
of the style.

b. On single words put absolutely : Hist., iii., 55, Latium (i. e.,
jus Latii) exlernis dilargiri; AnnaL, ii., 32, saxo (Tarpeio) dejectus
est (compare iv., 29, robur et saxum aut paricidarum poznas minitari).
Agr., 22, nee — nnquam per alios gesta avidus intercepii, that is, through
greediness of praise and glory. Hist., v., 1, occupare principem adhuc
vacuum, that is, not yet engaged by another, whose favor does not yet
incline to any one; so we have mulier vacua, AnnaL, xiii., 44, vacuus
adulter, xi., 12. Hist., i., 76, ne Aquitania quidem — diu mansit, that
is, continued faithful. AnnaL, ii., 33, excessit Fronto (that is, went
beyond, or digressed from, the subject before the senate), et postu-
lavit, &c. (Compare Q,uintiL, iii., 9, 4, egressio, vel, quod usitatius
esse cospit, excessus.) Dial., 2 1 , videtur mihi inter Menenios — studuisse,
after the manner of the Silver Age, in which studere is used abso-
lutely for the study of the art of rhetoric.

c. On the meaning of the words themselves : as examples of which
we may adduce rimari, introspicere, dispicere, gliscere (adolescere,
crescere, augeri, and augere with a passive signification), scevus, atrox,
ferox, trux, truculentus, grandis, ingens, enormis, all which words he
uses oftener than other writers.

III. By an unusual mode of using number, cases, adjectives,
moods, and particles, the language is rendered more effective and
concise.

a. The plural, chiefly of those nouns which are called abstract,

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXV

expresses various kinds and modes of action: Annul., i., 74, formam
vitce mitt, quam postea celebrem miseries temporum el audacice hominum
fecerunt; xiv., 4, ferendas parentium iracundias ; Germ., 2, ipsos
Germanos indigenas crediderim, minimeque aliarum gentium adventibus
et hospitiis mixtos.

b. There is a peculiar force and brevity in the use of the genitive
(concerning the nominative put absolutely, see below, under ellipsis,
b. a. dolor, ira)'. Annal., xv., 36, non longam sui absentiam et cuncta
in republica perinde immota ac prosper a fore (sui refers to Nero, whose
great idea of his own importance is plain from all accounts) ; xi., 24,
conditor nostri Romulus; ii., 54, nostri origo (a Roman is speaking).
The genitive plural expresses custom : Annal., ii., 1, Phraates — cuncta
venerantium officia ad Augustum verterat (which are wont to be offer-
ed by those who reverence their prince) ; vi., 40, supplicia civium
effugit (by which citizens are wont to be affected). To express the
dispositions and peculiarities of men, the genitive is used more fre-
quently than in other authors, and in a still more unusual way in the
plural number: Annal., iv., 31, Tiberius compositus alias et velut
eluctantium verborum. The partitive genitive is used more extens-
ively than in other writers, and its use increases the force and per-
spicuity of the narrative; the same remark applies to" the genitive
joined with pronouns. Annal., xii., 17, navium quasdam circumvenere
barbari prmfecto cokortis et plerisque centurionum interfectis ; chap,
xviii., Romanorum nemo id auctoritatis aderat, ut, &c. So we find
id temporis, solitudinis, honoris, Hist., iv., 23, neque unquam id ma-
lorum — ut, &c. Ingens rerum, pracipuus circumveniendi, primus
luenda pazna. (See below, where Graecisms are treated of.) The
genitive, which is called objective, is joined with the subjective : Hist.,
iii., 10, ut proditionis ira militum; Annal., xii., 26, Britannici for-
tune mceror (Cicero canum adulatio dominorum). To this class be-
longs that very difficult passage, Annal., xv., 61, itur etiam in principis
laudes repetitum venerantium; by those who reverenced the prince
on account of his wife's restoration ; compare xi., 23, et studiis diver sis
apud principem certabatur ads ever aniium, non adco agram Italiam, ut,
&,c. Compare, On the Poetical Complexion of the Style op
Tacitus, III., a. The genitive of the passive participle in endus,
joined with the same case of the substantive (or of the gerund with
the case which belongs to the verb), the word causa being omitted,
is used by no writer oftener than by Tacitus, in his strong desire of
brevity, to express the end which any one pursues: Annal., ii., 59,
J&gyptum proficiscitur cognoscendai antiquitatis ; iv., 2, neque senatorio
ambitu abstinebat clientes suos honoribus aut provinciis ornandi. Of
the same kind are genitives joined with substantives: Hist., iii., 40,

XXXVI ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

agendi tempora consultando consumsit; chap. 1., Silvanum socordem
hello et dies rerum verbis terentem; Annal., i., 58, non hie miki primus
erga populum Romanum jidei et constantice (sc. ostentanda)) dies.

c. Very similar is the use of the dative, which Tacitus has employ-
ed more frequently than any other writer, and in a more varied man-
ner, to express an end and advantage, and that, too, in such a way
that in this mode of speaking, also, he has respect to brevity : as it is
commonly said, triumvir reipublicce constituendce, dividendis agris,
comitia regi creando, so Annal., vi., 37, cum Me equum placando amni
adomasset; chap, xliii., ubi data fides reddendce dominationi venisse,
adlevatur animum; Hist., hi., 20, num — cetera expugnandis urbibus
(utilia) attulissent ; Annal., xiv., 3, additurum — defunctce templum et
aras et cetera ostentandae pietati (compare Livy, xxx., 6, qum restin-
guendo igni for ent port antes)', Annal., ii., 57, amid accendendis off en-
sionibus callidi ; Annal., xiv., 59, repertus est — nudus exercitando
corpori. Annal., xii., 46, diem locumque fosderi accepit ; i., 51, in-
cessit itineri et prcelio. To the same class belong obtentui, ostentui,
inrisui, derisui, usui, metui, despectui, potui, victui, vestitui, indutui,
visui, venatui esse, which are for the most part rare in other writers.
For the rest, see below, where Graecisms are treated of.

d. The accusative is often joined with verbs which express mo-
tion without a preposition, after the manner of the Greeks and of the
poets; as ripam accedere (Cicero), oppidum inrumpere (Caesar, Sal-
lust), incur sare Germaniam (Livy), involare castra (Cicero, rostra
advolare), advolvi genua (Sallust), incidere locum, incidere aliquem (in
aliquem), adventare propinqua Seleucice, Annal., vi., 44 ; propinquare
campos (Sallust), eniti agger em (Livy), escendere suggestum (Cicero,
Livy, and others), evadere angustias (Livy), elabi pugnam, egredi
tentoria (Sallust), exire lubricum juventa. This remark applies to
the following passages, which depart from common usage : Hist., iv.,
76, Germanos — non juberi, non regi; i., 16, gentibus, quce regnantur
(Pliny the elder) ; Annal., iii, 39, is proximum exercitum prcesidebat ;
Germ., 43, vertices montium:—insederunt; Annal., xi., 20, insignia
triumphi indulgere, i. e., concedere ; as if it were to indulge any one
with them, and so to yield them (Juvenal, se indulgere, i. e., permit-
tere alicui) ; similarly Tacitus uses propugnare, potiri, fungi, vesci,
disserere, fremere aliquam rem; but he likewise, that thus he might
add force to the narrative, has sometimes used prepositions where
the common language employs the accusative: Hist., iv., 48, ea de
cade quam verissime expediam; Germ., 34, reverentius visum de actis
deorum credere quam scire. Concerning the ablative of substantives
put absolutely, see below, where the participle is treated of.

e. Brevity is promoted by adjectives which, when joined to sub-

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXVU

stantives, have the force of genitives, or of other constructions, chiefly
in expressing those things which belong to lands, cities, or men :
Anna!., ih., 43, Trevericus tumultus ; iv., 20, provincialia uxorum
criminal xv., 23, Actiaca religio; iv., 3, munieipalis adulter; Hist.,
iv., 15, Caiance (Caii imperatoris) expeditiones ; AnnaL, i., 6, nover-
calia odia; chap, vii., uxorius ambitus; senilis adoptio ; 33, muliebres
offensiones ; iv., 2, se:iatorius ambitus, objectively, as chap. Ixii., muni-
cipalis ambitio; xii., 51, metus hostilis; ii., 44, vacui externo metu;
Dial., 29, Jiistrionalis favor. No one has oftener used this manner
of speaking ; but many similar examples are also found in the older
writers, as in Cicero, pro Lege Manilia, xii., Ostiense incommodurn ;
Cces., B. C, ii., 32, Corfiniensis ignominia; Cic. Fam., ii., 17, metus
Partkicus, objectively.

f. The infinitive is very frequently used by Tacitus for the sake
of this same brevity and force. The infinitive, which is called his-
torical, is used oftener than by other writers (as Livy and Sallust ;
see, On the Variety, &c., V., f.) ; and it is joined also with parti-
cles, and not only with demonstrative particles, as is the custom of
other writers, but even with copulatives: Hist., ih., 10, ubi crudescere
seditio ct a conviciis ac probris ad tela et manus transibant injici catenas
Flaviano jubet. AnnaL, xi., 34, jam erat in adspectu Messallina — cum
obstrepere accusator, &c. Sometimes it includes in itself velle and
posse, or solere : Hist., v., 15, Civilis instare fortunce, Cerialis abolere
(sc. volebat) ig nominiam ; Germ., 7, in proximo pignora, unde femi-
iiarum ululatus audiri, unde vagitus infantium (sc. possunt). Com-
pare the similar use of the indicative, subjunctive, and participle be-
low (h. i.). By no writer is the infinitive oftener joined with verbs,
which are commonly constructed with the particles id, ?ie, quominus,
quod, or in some other manner. Thus we find used in the older
writers also, but less frequently, hortari, impellere, prcecipere, permii-
tcre, postulare, imperare, monere, maturare, prohibere, instare, erube-
scere, consentire, destinare, pergere, as AnnaL, xi., 4 (Livy, and others),
pergitque — addere reos equites Homanorum; chap, xxxiv., instabat —
Narcissus aperire ambages. A similar use of the following words is
adopted by the poets : suadere, incumbere, mandare, orare, urgere,
ambiri, accingi, arcere, persistere, dare, adigere, deesse ; as Hist., hi.,
58, nee deerat ipse roliu, voce, lacrimis misericordiam elicere (but the
common construction is, AnnaL, xiv., 39, nee deficit Polyclitus quominus
— incederet). Tacitus alone appears thus to have used percellere,
perpellere, (zmulari, censere, nuntiare, denuntiare, scribere (i. e., nuntio,
scripto imperare), impetrare, inlicere, inducere (i. e., permovere),
componere, pangere, obsistere {Germ., 34, obstitit Oceanus (r<p) in se
simul atque in Herculem inquiri), inlacrimare {AnnaL, ii., 71), inlacri-

XXXV111 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

mabunt (r<p) quondam florentem — muliebri fraude cecidisse. See, Off
the Poetical Complexion, &c, III., c., y. To the verbs deferre
and incusare, the infinitive is joined in the place of a genitive or of
the particle quod; AnnaL, ii., 27, Libo Drusus defertur moliri res
novas; iii., 38, neque minus Rhoemetalcen — incusans popularium in-
jurias inultas sinere (compare below, On Gr^ecisms). On the other
hand, quod and ut are sometimes employed in a more unusual man-
ner for the accusative with the infinitive : creditum quod — voluisset ;
quibus jusserat ut — resisterent. See above, d., near the end.

g. The indicative is often, even in the obliqua oratio, joined to
the particle dum ; as AnnaL, ii., 81, Piso oravit uii traditis armis
maneret in castello, dum Ccesar cui Syriam permitteret consulitur.
Former writers have seldom spoken thus ; and so, in general, the in-
dicative is found more frequently in Tacitus than in other historical
writers, when sentences are inserted in the obliqua oratio as if they
proceeded from the mind of the writer himself; as, Hist., iv., 16, se
cum cohorte, cui prceerat — tumultum compressurum. No one, more-
over, has oftener used the indicative for the subjunctive, in that kind
of sentences which indicate that that which is implied in the condi-
tion had almost happened, as we have it in Livy, who not unfre-
quently speaks thus: iii., 19, nunc nisi Latini — arma sumsissent —
deleti eramus, we were lost. Generally nisi, more rarely si, joined
with the pluperfect, and sometimes with the imperfect, begins the
condition, and the idea which is limited by it oftener precedes than
follows in the imperfect, the pluperfect, and sometimes the perfect:
AnnaL, xi., 10, reciperare Armeniam avebat, ni a Vibio Mar so — co-
kibitus foret ; i., 63, trudebanturque in paludem — ni Ccesar — legiones
instrnxisset ; Hist., i., 16, si immensum imperii corpus stare — sine
rector e posset, dignus eram, a quo res publica inciperet. AnnaL, xi.,
37, ni ccedem ejus — properavisset, verterat pernicies in accusatorem
(thus Cicero, prceclare viceramus, nisi — Lepidus recepisset Antonium).
Hist., i., 64, prope in praslium exarsere, ni Valens — admonuisset (thus
Livy, ii., 10, pons iter pcene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset). In-
stances conformed to the common usage of the language are less fre-
quent in Tacitus.

To the same class belongs the Enallage of the Imperfect for
the Pluperfect, which is also used by the older writers, as AnnaL,
xii., 37, si statim deditus traderer (traditus essem, fuissem), neque niea
fortuna, neque tua gloria inclaruisset. Compare Hist., i., 48, Piso
(interfectus) unum et tricesimum cctatis annum explebat. In the use
of tenses in general there is great force. The historical present is
very frequently used (take as an example of all the rest, AnnaL, i.
21) : following the writers of tire former age, chiefly the poets, he

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXIX

nses the perfect with the force of the Greek aorist, 1. To express
custom: Agr., 9, hand semper erratfama; aliquando et elegit. 2. In
the place of the pluperfect; Hist., i., 53, hunc juvenem Galba — legioni
pr&posuit ; mox — ut peculator em fiagitari jussit (prseposuerat, jusserat
olim). 3. The infinitive present for the infinitive future : Annal., ii.,
34, Lucius Piso — dbire se et cedere urbe — testdbatur. 4. The perfect
for the infinitive future ; iv., 28, non enim se ccedem principis — uno
socio cogztasse (he would not have thought of it), and Cicero furnishes
a very similar example, Phil., ii., 3.

h. The subjunctive has not unfrequently a pregnant sense, in-
volving posse, velle, opus esse (compare the remarks on the historical
infinitive and the participle). We find examples of the same thing
in Cicero, Livy, and others : Agr., 17, cum Cerialis quidem alterius
successoris curam famamque obruisset (obrui potuisset), sustinuit quo-
que molem Julius Frontinus; Annal., i., 11, Tiberioque etiam in rebus
quas non occuleret (occulere vellet) — obscura verba; Agr., 22, ex
iracundia nihil supererat ; secretum et silentium ejus non timeres (non
erat causa cur timeres). To which the common phrase turn cerneres,
crederes, approaches very nearly. There is a similar but less frequent
use of the indicative: Annal., iv., 40, si dubitatione Augusti movemur
(nos moveri fas est), quanto validius est, quod, &c. ; ii., 34, Lucius
Piso — abire se et cedere urbe (cessururn), victurum in aliquo abdito et
longinquo rure testabatur ; simul curiam relinquebat, i. e., in eo erat ut
felinqueret. Compare Hist., i., 46, militare otium redimebant.

i. The participle does much to increase force of language and
concise brevity of style, and its use is more varied in Tacitus than in
other writers.

a. The perfect participle of deponent verbs is put indefinitively
(uoqi<jt£)c) for the present participle, as ratUs, veritus, and others are
even in the ordinary language ; Hist., ii., 96, in hunc modum etiam
Vitellius apud milites disseruit pr&torianos nkper exaucloratos insecta-
tus; and, also, as Livy had used it before, for the future passive par-
ticiple, which has the force of a present participle: Annal., xvi., 21,
Nero virtutem ipsam exscindere concupivit interfecto (interficiendo)
Thrasea Pceto. The present participle not unfrequently expresses an
attempt (compare the remarks on the subjunctive and historical in-
finitive) : Hist., ii., 18, retinenti duci tela intentare. It is used for the
infinitive: Annal., xiii., 50, sublatis portoriis sequens (thus Cicero
uses consequens, but with esse added) ut tributorum abolitio expostu-
laretur. Likewise for a substantive : Annal., iii., 40, disserebant de
— superbia prcesidentium, i. e., prsesidum. Compare Sen., Clem., 19,
nihil magis decorum regenti quam dementia. There is a similar brev-
ity (SpaxvTioyia) in the use of the future participle active : Annal., vi.,

Xl ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

3, incusabatur facile toleraturus exsilium delecta Lesbo (quod facile
toleraturus esset): Hist. , ii., 74, cetera — legiones secuturce sperahantur
(sperabantur fore ut sequerentur). The perfect passive participle is
used for the finite tenses of the verb : Annal., vi., 32, cupitum et
Tiberio, i. e., cupiebat; and so it takes the place of a substantive (as
in Plautus); Annal., iv., 3, nepotes adulti moram cupiiis adferebant.
The neuter of the future passive participle is joined with the verb
habere, after the manner of the Silver Age (like the perfect participle,
oratum te habeo, and as we read in Cicero, cedem tuendam habere')',
dicendum, respondendum, nubendum habere.

/?. Oftener, and still more boldly than other writers, he uses the
perfect passive participle in the place of an abstract substantive,
when it refers even to inanimate objects : Annal., i., 8, cum occisus
dictator Ccesar — pulcherrimum f acinus videretur ; Annal., vi., 27,
genus illi decorum, vivida senectus ; et non permissa provincia digna-
tionem addiderat. Compare Livy, xxvii., 37, liber atas religione mentes
turbavit rursus nuntiatum, Frusinone infantem natum esse quadrimo
par em.

y. Adjectives ending in His are expressed by perfect passive parti-
ciples; in the same way adjectives which indicate a certain ease and
perpetuity are expressed by future active participles, and others, also,
by future passive participles : Agr., 18, nihil arduum aut invictum
credere (so Sallust) ; Annal. , i, 28, noctem minacem et in scelus erup-
turam fors lenivit ; iv., 38, pulcherrimtz effigies et mansurce (lasting,
enduring); Dial., 22,Jlrmus sane paries et duraturus ; Annal., ii., 38
(so Livy, the poets, and the writers of the Silver Age), quamvis
domus Hortensii pudendam ad inopiam delaberetur (fcedam, turpem ;
but it is easily perceived that the participle is more forcible) ; Hist.,
iii., 84, pudenda lalebra semet occultans.

6. Ablatives which are called absolute are used in an unusual way,
and generally elliptically ; but examples of the same thing are not
wanting in the older writers. The most uncommon case is that of
the future active participle employed in this way: Hist., ii., 32, in-
rwpturis tarn infestis nationibus. Very often the participle of the sub-
stantive verb (tiv) must be supplied, as it were, in thought, when a
substantive is found (put absolutely) joined with an adjective or with
a pronoun: Hist., iii., 26, incipere oppugnationem — arduum, et nullo
juxta subsidio anceps; Annal., xi., 23, suffecisse olim indigenas con-
sanguineis populis ; that is, when yet the nations of Italy were of the
same race as the Romans ; Livy, xxxvi., 6, labante — disciplina et
multorum eo statu, qui diuturnus esse non posset. The ellipsis is
harsher when the adjective or substantive is used alone in this man-
ner: Annal., \., 6, juxta periculosa ficta seu vera promeret, i. e., cum

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. xli

juxta periculosum esset (as Livy; so dubio, incerto, sere?io); Anna!.,
iv., 5, initio ab Syria (in other passages we read initio — orto ; as,
Hist., iii, 44, initio — a prima Adjutrice legione orto) ; iii., 28, dedit jura,
qui s pace et principe uteremur ; i., 59, aliis gentibus igno^antia imperii
Romani inexperta esse supplicia. Compare C&sar, B. C, ii., 23,
Ccesaris naves ejus fuga se receperunt. Like this is the use of the ab-
lative of substantives in the place of an adverb, as in the older writers,
also, casu, consensu, nomine, ratione, judicio (as if adkibito were to be
added), and similar words are found: Annal., i., 59, non enim se pro-
ditione — sed palam — helium tractare ; Dial., 25, solum inter hos ar~
bitror Brutum non malignitate nee invidia, sed simpliciter et ingenue
judicium animi sui detexisse ; Annal., xiv., 5, Acerronia imprudentia
(cum imprudenter ageret) — navalibus telis conficitur, which serve, as
it were, for a transition to that use of the ablative in which, oftener
than in other writers, it is used by itself, without the participle which
is commonly joined with it {ductus, commotus), to express a reason ;
Annal.. i., 57, juvenis conscientia cunctabatur ; Hist., i., 63, non ob
pr&dam aut spoliandi cupidine, sed furore et rabie; Annal., xii., 10,
non se foederis ignaros, nee defeclione a familia Arsacidarum venire.
The perfect passive participle is put absolutely, the substantive being
omitted much oftener in Tacitus than in the older writers: Annal.,
i^ 35, strictum obtulit gladium addito acutiorem esse. Thus adjecto,
cognito, intellecto, comperto, audito, explorato, nuntiato, quasilo, pen'
sitato, prcedicto, credito, distincto, repetito, certato, disceptato, ex-
spectato, interdicto, are fouud in this writer, and, what is very rare in
other authors, even without the addition of any words to hold the
place of the object: Annal., xv., 14, et multum invicem disceptato,
Monobazus — testis — adhibetur.

k. The supine, which no writer uses more frequently than Tacitus,
is used both in the accusative and ablative, for the sake of brevity ;
for example, ultum, perditum, raptum, inlusum ire, oppugnatum ve-
nire; pudet dictu appears to be used by Tacitus alone. Missu, ad-
monitu alicujus, and similar phrases, are not without example in
former writers.

1. Great power lies in the use of prepositions when they are put,
according to a rather unfrequent usage, for a simple case (sometimes,
but not so often, the genitive or another case is used, contrary to the
common mode of speech, in place of a preposition ; as, Hist., i., 46
ne volgi largitione (in vulgus) centurionum animos averteret). F<
example, Annal., xii., 25, adoptio in Domitiv.m — festinatur; xi., 2
isque illi finis inscitice erga domum suamfuit (in things relating to L
house) ; Hist., ii., 56, in omnefas nefasque avidi aut venales ; Annal.,
iii., 24, Silanus in nepti Augusti adulter; xv., 44, in crimine incendii

Xlii ON THE STYLE OP TACITUS.

— convicti sunt; i., 12, addidit laudem de Au gusto ; Hist., i., 67, de
ccede Galbce ignari; Annal., ii., 39, forma haud dissimili in dominum
erat; Agr., 12, nee aliudpro nobis utilius. Compare, On the variety
of the Style of Tacitus, V., a, and On the Poetical Complexion,
&c, III., d,, y.

IV. Frequently, in the composition of a sentence, a deeper sense
lies hid when, the form of expression not being perfect and precise,
and the ordinary connection of words being neglected, the feeling
alone with which the soul of the writer is moved, and the thought
which he has conceived in his mind, are expressed by a structure of
the sentence which is called pregnant. There are, indeed, such pass-
ages in the writers of the former age also, chiefly in Livy ; but not
so used as to form an essential feature of their style. Hist., hi., 49,
primus Antonius nequaquam pari innocentia post Cremonam (incensam)
agebat ; Annal., iv., 40, posse ipsam Liviam statuere, nubendum post
Drusum (mortuum), an in penatibus isdem tolerandum haberet; An
nal., i., 39, jus legationis (violatum) atque ipsius Planci — casum—-
facunde miser atur ; Agr., 18, qui classem, qui navis, qui mare ex*
spectabant ; that is, the violence of the sea, and the aid to be gained
from thence; Annal., ii., 40, offerant pecuniam, fidem atque pericula
polliceantur ; that is, to share the danger; Hist., iv., 59, ceteros, ut
quisque fiagilium navaverat (that is, had exerted himself in perpe-
trating wickedness, as in Cicero we have navare rempublicam)
prcemiis attollit. The prepositions in and ad are often used to form
a pregnant sense: Annal., i., 55, dissidere ho stem in Arminium ac
Segestem ; that is, they quarreled to such a degree that some went
over to the side of Arminius, and others to that of Segestes ; chap,
lvii., uxor Arminii — neque victa in lacrimas (that is, so as to shed
tears), neque voce supplex; iii., 19, ceteris ad dicendum testimonium
exterritis; that is, so as to utter their testimony. Compare Livy, ii.,
40, Coriolanus — consternatus ab sede sua cum ferret matri obvice com-
plexum; and vii., 42, multitudinem ad arma consternatam esse.

V. Nearly allied to these examples are the forms of speech to which
the Greek grammarians have applied the terms GVAAniptc and Cevyjua,
in which words that refer to different kinds of things, or to different
persons, are joined together, and included in one and the same kind
of construction. Compare, On the Variety, &c, V., b., near the
end.

a. The term Syllepsis I would apply chiefly to those passages in
which things of an entirely different nature are mentioned in con-
nection with each other; as, donee ira et dies permansit; quia dis-

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. xlUi

simulationem nox et lascivia exemerat; ubi node ac Icetitia incaluisse
violet; mixti copiis et Icetitia; Germania a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo
metu aut montibus separatur ; tribuni cum terrore et armatorum catervis
volitabant. In all these cases some affection of the mind is so con-
nected with things not pertaining to the mind, that, on account of this
very difference between the two notions, you would expect them to
be differently expressed, either by the use of words which properly
belong to each, or, at least, by some variation in the construction of
the sentence. To this head I would also refer those passages where
the preposition in, joined with an accusative, includes at the same time
the ablative or some other sense; Germ., 46, in medium relinquam,
i. e., in dubium vocatum relinquam in medio ; Annal., iv., 25, aderant
semisomnos in barbaros, i. e., aderant et irruebant (see below, On the
Poetical Complexion, &c, III., c, y.): and, moreover, those in
which the same word refers to different things, all of which might be
joined with it according to the usage of the language ; as, Hist., iii.,
41, ut — Gallias et exercitus et Germanics gentes novumque bellum
cieret. Compare, also, Hist., ii., 56, in omnefas nefasque avidi; that
is, greedy of all things, whether it were right or wrong to desire
them.

b. The term Zeugma applies to those cases in which a verb that
only suits the words immediately preceding it, and not also those
which are more remote, is yet made to embrace the latter as well as
the former within the same kind of construction, some similar verb
being, as it were, implied in the one used: Annal., vi., 21, turn com-
plexus eum Tiberius prcescium periculorum (esse fatetur) et incolumem
fore gratatur; chap, xxiv., ut, quemadmodum nurum jiliumque fratris
et nepotes (interfecisset) domumque omnem ccedibus complevisset, ita,
&c. ; Germ., 2, quoniam qui primi Rkenum trans gressi ac nunc Tungri
(vocentur), tunc Germani vocati sint; chap* xxxvi., ita qui olim boni
cequique Cherusci (vocabantur) nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur; An-
nal., i., 58, quia Romanis Germanisque idem conducere (putabam) et
pacem quam bellum probabam ; xiii., 56, deesse nobis (potest) terra in
qua vivamus, in qua moriamur non potest; Hist., i., 8, vir facundus et
pads artibus (expertus), bellis inexpertus. But the zeugma is not al-
ways in the verb, but sometimes, also, in a word joined to it; as, An-
nal., ii., 73, et erant qui (Germanici) formam, cetatem, genus mortis,
ob propinquitatem etiam locorum, in quibus interiit, magni Alexandri
(formae, aetati, et) fatis adcequarent.

VI. The figure which is properly called Ellipsis is met with ex-
tensively in Tacitus, and has very great power in augmenting the
brevity and conciseness of his language. In the plays of the come-

xliV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

dians, also, and in the letters of Cicero, this form of expression is often
met with. A few examples of each case of it will suffice.

a. Nouns are omitted: Papia Poppcea (lex), Sulpicia (gens),
postero (die), octingentesimo post Romam conditam (anno), ad duode-
cimum (lapidem), laureates (litterae), Piraeus Attica or<e (portus),
Apicata Sejani (uxor), pretium est (operse). Also, Pronouns: the
substantive pronoun, AnnaL, i., 35, si vellet imperium, promtos (se)
ostentavere: the demonstrative pronoun; iv., 60, gnarus praferocem
(eum esse): the relative pronoun; AnnaL, vi., 7, Seius Quadratus,
(cujus) originem non repperi; chap, xxxvi., quis neque boni intellectus
neque mali cura, sed (qui) mercede aluntur. There are examples, also,
in older writers of the omission of the relative in those phrases which
are placed in apposition with the principal sentence, either to afford
an explanation or to express the intention: AnnaL, vi., 10, L. Piso
pontifex, (quod) rarum in tanta claritudine, fato obiit ; i., 3, Augustus,
subsidia dominationi (quae essent) Claudium Marcellum — Marcum
Agrippam — extulit.

b. Verbs are omitted.

a. The infinitive of the Substantive Verb ; and in several passages
this construction is such that the accusative or nominative appears
to be simply joined with the verb on which the accusative with the
infinitive depends: Hist., ii. 82, sufficere videbantur adversus ViteU
Hum pars copiarum et dux Mucianus et Vespasiani nomen ac nihil
arduum fatis (to nihil arduum esse); AnnaL, i., 73, deorum injurias
dis cures. But even the indicative and subjunctive moods of this verb
are omitted oftener than in former writers ; and the indicative chiefly
in those passages which express the more vehement emotions of the
mind: AnnaL, ii., 82, at Roma, postquam Germanici valetudo percre-
bruit — dolor, ira; Hist., ii., 29, ut vero deformis etfiens et prater spem
incolumis Valens processit, gaudium, miseratio , favor ; iv., 46, ut vero
hue illuc distrahi cazpere, metus per omnes et pracipua Germanici militis
formido. AnnaL, i., 65, cum — apud Romanos invalidi ignes, inter-
rupta voces (essent), atque ipsi passim adjacerent vallo.

(3. Posse, facere, agere, vereri, venire, ire, se conferre are
omitted ; as, AnnaL, xiii., 41, Artaxata — solo aquata sunt, quia nee
teneri (poterant), sine valido prasidio — nee id nobis virium erat, &c. ;
Agr., 19, nihil per libertos servosque publica rei (actum) ; AnnaL, i.,
47, quos igitur anteferret ? ac (verendum) ne postpositi contumelia
incenderenUtr ; xiv., 8, anxia Agrippina quod nemo afilio ( venire t) ac
ne Agcrinus quidem (rediret).

y. Very often verbs of sense and speech are omitted; as, Agr.,
33, excepere orationem — alacres ; jamque agmina et armorum fulgores
audentissimi cujusque procursu (conspiciebantur) ; AnnaL, i., 7, vuU

ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. xlv

tuque composite?, ne Iceti (viderentur) excessu principis neu tristiores
primordio, lacrimas, gaudium — miscebant ; chap, xxxi., non unus hcec
(dicebat) — sed multa seditionis or a vocesque.

c. Particles are omitted by no other writer more frequently :
Annal., xiv., 8, respicit Anicetum (a) trierarcho — comitatum; hi., 19,
is finis fuit (in) ulciscenda Germanici morte; i., 12, (ex) vultu offen
sionem conjectaverat; xiv., 40, tabulas (cum) lis quos memoravi et aliis
minus inlustribus obsignat; Agr., 35^ ne simul in front em, simul et (in)
latera suorum pugnaretur ; Annal., hi., 30, (incertum est) fato poten-
tice raro sempiternce, an (quia) satias capit, &c. So quod, cum (fol-
lowed by turn), licet, magis, tantum, tanto, eo, potius, alii, kinc,
primum, modo, aliquando, ut, ita, tamen, sed are omitted in many
places. Whole sentences are omitted before the particles nam and
enim (just as in the Greek writers yap is used in the same way):
Annal., xiv., 44, at quidam insontes peribunt ! (and no wonder; nee
mirum) nam et exfuso exercitu — etiam strenui sortiuntur ! chap, xiv.,
nam et ejus flagitium est qui, &c. To the same head belongs the
figure Asyndeton, so much used by Tacitus: Hist., i., 3, futurorum
prcBsagia, Iceta, tristia, ambigua, manifesta; chap. Ixxiii., consulari
matrimonio subnixa, et apud Galbam, Othonem, Vitellium inlcesa;
Annal., iii., 26, vetustissimi mortalium — sine probro, scelere coque sine
posna — agebant ; Hist., iv., 75, eum, qui attulerat, ipsas epistolas ad
Domitianum misit.

VII. To this law of brevity some forms of expression appear to be
opposed, which, however, in reality, increase the force and liveliness
of the narration.

a. The figure which is called by Quintilian Anadiplosis, or adjec-
tion ; that is, the repetition or even more frequent reiteration of the
same word (chiefly of particles) with a certain force. This is gener-
ally so managed that the repetition answers the purpose of an omitted
copulative conjunction, only that it has greater power: Annal., i., 7,
miles in forum, miles in curiam comitabatur ; Hist., i., 50, mansisse
Caio Julio, mansisse Ccesare Augusto victore imperium; Annal., ii.,
82, statim credita, statim vulgata sunt; Dial., 40, apud quos omnia
populus, omnia imperiti, omnia {ut sic dixerim) omnes poteraiit ; nostra
quoque civitas, donee erravit, donee se — confecit, donee nulla fuit in
foro pax, nulla — concordia, nulla — moderatio, nulla — reverentia,
nullus — molus, tulit, &c. This passage is a clear proof that it was
chiefly as an orator that Tacitus used this mode of expression, as
there are veiy many examples of it in Cicero and Quintilian, but few
in the historical writers, if you except Livy, who affects the style of
an orator

Xlvi ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

b. Words which are commonly called synonymous, but which, in
truth, are of such a nature that the one augments, explains, and am-
plifies with a new sense the signification of the other. Generally,
substantives, of which Tacitus is very fond, are constructed in this
manner : seditio et turbce, fulgor et claritudo, dolor et ira, odium et in-
vidia, modestia et pudor, sanguis et ccedes, vires et robur. Veteres et
senes, antiqui ac veteres, do not so much belong to this head, as they
do not express the same things. Of adjectives, adverbs, and verbs so
used, the number is less. The following are examples : incertum et
ambiguum, immotum Jixumque, turbide et seditiose, temere ac fortuitof
occultare et abdere, pollui fosdarique.

c. The figure called in Greek ev dia dvolv (Hendiadys), of which
we have an example in the well-known passage, pateris libamus et
auro. But the examples of this figure which are found in Tacitus
(and they are very many) prove that there is a greater power in sub-
stantives and adjectives, constructed after this manner, than in the
usual form of speech : Agr., 16, nee ullum in barbaris scevitice genus
omisit ira et victoria (this has greater force than ira victoris; it is
anger and the license of victory, rather than of the conquerors) ;
Germ., 33, super sexaginta milia — oblectationi oculisque ceciderunt (not
simply oblectationi oculorum, but for our entertainment and the mere
pleasure of the spectacle). The copulative conjunction often serves
for an explanation : Annal., i., 40, incedebat muliebre et miser abile
agmen (not miserabile mulierum agmen, but a troop consisting of
women, and for that reason chiefly miserable).

d. As to the examples of Pleonasm, they proceeded less from the
genius of Tacitus than from the common usage of the Latin language,
nor do they detract in any measure from the brevity of the discourse ;
since none of the old writers has given offence by thus, as it were,
expressing things abundantly. But there are also many among these
passages of such a kind that the one word adds something to the
meaning of the other. Thus, mare Oceanum is spoken of just as
Rhenus amnis ; corpus in all writers (contrary to the usage of our
language) is used pleonastically in such passages, corporis morbus,
corporum verbera, libera corpora (liberi homines) : ante prcevidere, ante
prcedicere are also used in the older writers; ipse solus, Germ., 38,
and Dial., 5, and solus et unus, Dial., 34, are explained by referring
to the Greek avroc fiovoc, and also to that passage of Cicero, Verr., i.
2 {quod ipsis solis satis esset).

ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. Xrvii

ON THE POETICAL COMPLEXION OF THE STYLE OF
TACITUS.

That there was among the Greeks in the most ancient times a
great resemblance between the poets and the historical writers, is
sufficiently proved by that well-known comparison in which we are
wont to speak of Homer, the father of epic poetry, as an author re-
sembling Herodotus, while we call the latter the Homer of history.
Among the Romans the plan of composing history was different ; for,
having at first attended only to the registering of annals, and having
thus been accustomed to set more value on the facts themselves, than
on the expression of the feelings which move the mind in narrating
and judging of the several events, when afterward they were led on,
chiefly by the example of the Greeks, to aspire to more perfect skill
in the art of writing history also, they then sought more after the
ornaments of rhetoric than of poetry. And thus, indeed, you would
justly mention Titus Livius as the most perfect model among all the
Roman historians, and as the author who chiefly establishes the
ability of the Romans for that species of composition, and, above all,
as far excelling those writers who, like Lucan, Silius, and others,
by doing little more than narrating events in stiff language, lessened
the gravity of epic verse and hurt the dignity of history, while they
in vain affected poetical language in order to ornament their records
of bare facts. Tacitus alone, among all these writers, is worthy to be
compared with those Greeks ; because he sought not poetical orna-
ments from without, but was strong in the power of his own genius,
and in the innate poetical sublimity of his mind. And as Herodotus
presents to us the likeness of the epic, so does our author chiefly that
of the lyric and dramatic muse, by arranging every event he records
after the manner of a tragic poet, and in all things expressing the im-
pulses of his own mind, nay, even the inmost feelings of his soul.
When, as we read his annals and histories, we see, the efforts made
by men worthy of a better age against the cruelty of princes and the
common corruption of manners falling fruitless to the ground, but yet
perceive, at the same time, that there can be good and brave men even
under evil rulers ; when we behold fortune, fate, nay, the gods them-
selves, ruling in a wonderful and ever inscrutable manner the divers
chances of human events ; as we contemplate in his books of annals
the fatal extinction of the Julian race, and in his histories the mighty-
efforts to establish anew an empire already desolate and falling ; do
we not seem to ourselves to be reading some tragic composition, such
as those of iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides ? is not the mournful
image of a Niobe presented before our eyes ? are not our souls per.

Xlviii ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

vaded with a kind of horror as at the sight of a Laocoon attempting
in vain to burst the frightful knots of serpents ? Surely it is a design
worthy of the dignity of the Roman Empire, to expend all the re-
sources of so profound a skill in setting forth what was the fate and
what the chances of events, through which the power of a " people,
now for a long time most mighty, destroyed itself;" what were the
vices both of citizens and rulers, which provoked the vengeance and
punishment of the immortal gods, so that that mighty imperial struc-
ture began to fall to ruin. Behold a second Scipio, not sitting among
the ruins of proud Carthage when she had just fulfilled her destiny,
but on the soil of Rome herself, even now sinking to destruction, and
prophesying with gushing tears the ruin of his country ! See him
meditating, not with a factitious and far-fetched effort, but under
aspects which to such a mind present themselves spontaneously, upon
the image of his country, before so excellent and so perfect in all its
parts, now distorted and ruined ! And we see that he practiced no
less art than Sophocles used in his divine tragedies, in arranging
every several part, and assigning its own place to each. After pre-
fixing, both to the histories and to the books of annals, a prologue, in
which not only the argument of the whole work, but its entire plan
and character, are briefly shadowed forth, he then leads the minds
of his readers, now with a quickened, and now with a slackened and
restrained pace, through all the stages of the action, which are meted
out in a manner fit and suitable to the things themselves and to the
laws of art; and he so depicts the natures and characters of men, and
of the actions performed by them ; he so portrays real life, even in
its most varied and troubled forms — whether he writes of battles and
the storming of cities, or whether of things done in the palaces of
princes, and the houses of private men — that all these things we seem
to behold with our own eyes, and to be present at them ourselves.
But these are matters of such a kind that their nature can be less easily
described than conceived in the mind itself. We shall proceed to
illustrate, by examples, those points alone which belong to the poetical
form of the language itself.

I. Among these examples, the collocation of the words them-
selves first claims our attention. For, in some passages in Tacitus,
either whole or half verses are found: Annal., i., 1, Urbem Romam a
principio reges habuere ; xv., 73, donee consensu patrum deterritus est,
ne ; Germ., 18, bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis ; chap, xxxii.,
prcecellunt; nee major apud Cattos peditum laus; chap, xxxix., an-
guriis patrum et prisca formidine sacram. But Cicero has already
observed that verses often fall, also, from the pens of writers through

ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. xlix

carelessness, of which there are examples in Livy and many other
authors: Livy, moreover, as well as Tacitus, begins the preface to
his books of histories with an hexametrical exordium. And, indeed,
this circumstance, especially when two principal writers agree in it,
I can not believe to have fallen out at a venture ; but in the case of
Tacitus especially, to whose language gravity {aefivov) is said pecul-
iarly to belong, I should suppose, not, indeed, that he took pains to
frame a verse in the very outset of his work, but that he retained
one which had spontaneously offered itself to his mind.

II. Single Words are used poetically.

a. Words in themselves poetical, and belonging to a former age:
desolatus, eburnus, exspes, fatiscere, grandcevus, mersare, prasagus,
secundare, &c. And of a later age : adcursus (us), distinctus (us),
honorus. Simple verbs used for compounds : asperate, celerare, cire,
jlere (aliquid), gravescere, jutus, propinquare, radere, solari, suescere,
temnere, of a later ageflammare.

b. Words poetical in their signification (chiefly those so used by
metonyme) : cur a de libro, demissus = originem trahens, fides, jiducia
applied to a man who inspires confidence {Hist., ii., 4, 5. Titus — in-
gens rerum jiducia accessit et prcecipua concordice fides Titus), flagi-
tium = efflagitatio, puerperium = partus, sinister = malus, species =
acies oculorum),* triste used as a substantive ; in the poets of the
later age : annus = proventus anni, transigere = transfigere, transmit-
tere = transire silentio. Abstract terms are used for concrete
much oftener than in other prose writers: auxilia, vigilim, militia
(= milites, Hist., iii., 18, quos militice legionariis — aquabant; com-
pare Plin., Hist. Nat., iv., 27, Glessaria a succino militiai — by the
soldiers, militibus nostris — appellata, abarbaris Austraria), delectus {in
civitates remittere, Hist., iv., 71), matrimonia, conjugium, necessitu-
dines, adfinitates, amicitice, dominationes, nobilitates, remigium, client elai
servitium, exsilium {Hist, i., 2, plenum exsiliis mare), antiquitas, con-
sultationes, mors, ingenia {pavida, servilia). Substantives are put
for adjectives, spectator populus, domus regnatrix, corruptor animus,
victor exercitus, bellator equus (according to the Greek form of ex-
pression). Adjectives are also used in the place of substantives,
6ee III., b.

* AnndL, xi, 31, sive ceperat ea (tempestatem ; but Tacitus appears to have
written ea designedly to express a less conspicuous object ; any thing of the kind)
species (ejus). Compare Livy, xxxvii., 24, spectacuhim capessite oculis. So Lucret.,
iv., 242, speciem quo vertimus, and oftener ; Vitruv., ix., 4, si tantis intervallis nostra
species potest id animadvertere, and in other places.

I ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

III. Poetical Structure of the Words: Gr^ecisms* (some
words have also a Greek form: Dial., 31, grammatice, musice, et
*geometrice. But Tacitus has never followed the practice of his age,
in mixing words belonging to the Greek tongue with Latin words).

a. In the use of the Cases. Concerning the ellipsis in the use
of the Genitive, see, On the Brevity, &c., VI., a. : Apicata Sejani
(uxor), as the Greeks say 'AXe^avdpog 6 QlIIiztzov ; Pirceeus Atticce
ores (portus) ; as, etc ttjv Qikiitizov, sc. x^Pav- Annal., xv., 14, adje-
cisse deos (dignum Arsacidarum) ut simul, &c., a^iov tuv 'Kpa. Com-
pare Cicf Balb., 2, mihi quidem dignum rei videtur. Concerning the
peculiar use of the partitive genitive (ol (j>p6vi/j,ot rdv avOpumov), see,
On the Brevity, &c, III., b. The genitive is nowhere found more
frequently than in Tacitus joined to relative adjectives and partici-
ples (as anaie apfrevuv iraldcov), and the same may be said of the Ac-
cusative, where it is used to apply or restrict the discourse to any
object (nodag ukvc, tc&vtcl evdatfiovElv, ra de aKKa). A few examples
will suffice : ingens animi, diversus animi, fallax amicitice, vetus operis
ac laboris, morum non spernendus, prcecipuus circumveniendi, primus
luendce pcence, anxius potentice, virtutum sterilis, insolens obsequii, mani-
festus delicti, ferox Ungues, atrox odii; contectus humeros, nudus
brachia, adlevari animum, cetera degener, cetera egregius. The Da-
tive is put for the genitive after the manner of the poets : Hist., iii.,
5, Rcetia, cui Porcius procurator erat; Annal., xhi., 23, cui (cujus)
pernuptias Anionics gener erat (Cic, Demochares — quifuit Demostheni
sororis films') ; Annal., i., 3, Augustus subsidia dominationi — Marcellum
• — Agrippam — extulit; ii., 64, immittere latronum globos, exscindere
castella, causas bello; chap. 46, missus tamen Drusus — pact firmator ;
iii., 14, vario rumor e, custos saluti an mortis exactor sequeretur. For
a preposition : Annal., xi., 37 , florenti filice Inaud concors; Hist., iv.,
52, Domitiano mitigatus, i. e., mitigatus in Domitiani animo. There
is a brevity (ftpaxvhoyia) in the use of the dative of the participle :
Annal., xiv. 49,, optimum quemque jurgio lacessens et respondenti re-
ticens; that is, keeping silence if any one answered. There is a veiy
close resemblance to this in the use of the dative absolute, borrowed by
the Latins from the Greeks (thus Herodotus : akrjdei Xoya) xpzufievc)),
Agr., 11; Germ., 6, in universum cestimanti (Curt.); Hist., iv., 17,
vere reputantibus, Galliam suismet viribus concidisse. Compare Livy,
xxvi., 24, urbium Corcyrce tenus ab JEtolia incipienti solum tectaque —
JEtolorum esse (so Herodotus, ii., 29, arch 'EXeQavrivnc koTiloc lovtl
avavrec hari x<*>piov). On the similar use of the genitive, see, On
the Brevity, &c, III., b. Annal., xiv., 61, and xi., 23. The dative,

* But many, also, of the peculiarities explained above, may be considered as
borrowed from the Greek language

ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION7. h

which is called subjective, is used more frequently by no writer than
bv Tacitus with passive verbs, in place of a preposition with the ab-
lative. In this circumstance the Greeks have a still greater variety
and pliability in their language, as is clear from the fact that, besides
this dative (?JXeKTal (jlol, ettputteto avrolg ra rfjg noXeug) they use
not only the preposition imb, but others also, izpoc, rzapd, ek. Among
the Latins, the poets have not unfrequently used this form of speech ;
as Ovid, Barbarus hie ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli; but Cicero
too, Livy, and others use it. So Tacitus, Annal., i., 1, veteris popuh
Romani prospera vel adversa claris scriptoribus memorata sunt; iv.. 6,
frumenta — cetera publicorum fructuum societatibus equitum Roman-
orum agitabantur ; xi., 29, Callistus jam mihi circa necem Caii Ccesaris
narratus. Concerning the accusative, see above, On the Brevity,
&c, III., d.

b. In the use of Adjectives.*

a. In the place of Substantives are put neuter adjectives, most-
ly joined with the genitive (the singular of the adjective being used
less often than the plural), as well by Livy and other writers as by
the poets and Tacitus (ra. tea/id, ra. avaynala, to rerpa/ijuivov tCjv
(SapSdpov, to no'A/idv Tijg ot paring., daijjua f3of}c, i. e., aonfioc porj, tCjv
fiouv KaTaKSKpn/uviafiiva). Anna!., i., 1, populi Romani prospera vel
adversa; hi., 40, per conciliabula et catus seditiosa disserebant ; xiv.,
15, quin et fe mince inlustres informia meditari. Annal., hi., 59, diverso
terrarum distineri ; ii., 39, adire municipia obscuro diet. Annal., iv.,
23, incerta belli metuens; as, ambigua, dubia, fortuita, intuta, certa,
avia, inaccessa, angusta, ardua, lubrica, edita, obstantia, opportuna,
amasna, plana, subjecta, aperta, profunda, secreta, adversa, sceva,
subita, occulta, aperta, idonea, vana, inania, falsa, tacita, langinqua,
pHma, extrema, summa, prcecipua, reliqua, cetera, alia, pauca, multa,
are found in Tacitus, joined with the genitive plural.

/?. Adjectives are very often used by him, as well as by the poets,
after the manner of the Greeks (alvd for aiv&c, evdov iravvvxiot, i. e.f
vvkt'l, devTepaZor d^tKETo, i. e., 6evTEpa Tj/ufpa), for Adverbs, when
greater power is thereby given to the discourse: Annal., iv., 12,
domum Germanici revirescere occulti Icetabantur ; xii., 12, si citi ad-
venissent; v., 1, aufert marito (Liviam) — adeo properus, ut, &c. ;
Agr., 19, a se suisque orsus primam domum suam coercuit ; Annal., iii.,
52, adversum luxum, qui inmensum proruperat ; iv., 60, Tiberius torvus
autfalsum renidens vultu; chap. 28, innocentem Comutum et falsa ex-
territum.

y. The use of the Preposition Ex for Adjectives and Ad-

* Many points, also, in the mode of comparison which are borrowed from the
Greek language, have been noticed above. (See, On the Vajeuety, &c, V., d.)

Hi ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

verbs is very common in Tacitus. This mode of expression the
poets have generally used after the manner of the Greeks (e/c tov e/z-
#aveoc, dia t&xovc, kv tu <j>avepti, and also in the plural number,
which is never thus used by Latin writers, e/c rtiv dwartiv), and some
examples of this have even passed into the language of common dis-
course ; as, ex improviso, ex inopinato, ex insperato, ex composite, ex
prceparato, ex cequo, ex occulto, in Livy, ex tuto, ex vano, ex super-
vacuo : many instances are found in the writers of the Silver Age ;
as, ex abundanti, ex continenti (continuo), ex pari, ex toto ; in Tacitus,
ex honesto, ex integro, ex vano, exfacili, ex adfluenti, ex cequo in many
places. And on a like principle, per silentium, per iram, per licentiam,
in aperto, in levi, in neutrum, in mollius, in deterius. See, On the
Brevity, &c, VII., d., at the end.

c. In the use of the Verb. Concerning the indefinite (aoristical)
use of the tenses, see, On the Brevity, &c, III., g., i., and con-
cerning the use of the infinitive, ibid., III., f. The infinitive is used
by attraction with the nominative in place of the accusative; as in
that passage of Virgil, sensit medios delapsus in hostes; Hist., iv., 55,
ipse e majoribus suis hostis populi Romani quam socius (esse) jactabat ;
in like manner, Herod., viii., 137, tov faadbv etyaoav dUaioi elvai
inzolatovTec ovtu k^iivai. On the other hand, the accusative, instead
of the nominative, is joined with the infinitive, after the Greek cus-
tom (e<j>n elvat arparnyov = arparnyog) : Hist., iv., 52, Titum — orasse
dicebatur; i., 90, Trachali ingenio Othonem uti credebatur ; Germ.,
33, Angrivarios immigrasse narratur. Very seldom dicitur; more fre-
quently, in Livy, creditur, proditur, traditur, fertur, nuntiatur, are
found thus used. The infinitive supplies the place of the substantive
and gerund, after the usage of the Greeks, which has been received
by the poets, and in a few examples, also, by the writers of the former
age.

a. For the nominative: Annal., xv., 20, culpa quam poena tempore
prior, emendari quam peccare posterius est; Hist., ii., 82, sufficere
videbantur adversus Vitellium pars copiarum et dux Mucianus et Ves-
pasiani nomen ac nihil arduum (esse) fatis. ^

(3. For the genitive, and sometimes for the ablative : Annal., vi.,
12, dato sacerdotibus negotio — vera discernere; Dial., 3, etiamsi non
novum tibi ipse negotium importasses — adgregare (Ccesar, B. G., vii.,
71, consilium — dimittere); Agr., 8, peritus (tov) obsequi eruditusque
(tcj) utilia honestis miscere ; Annal., iv., 52, modicus dignationis et
quoquo facinore properus clarescere (a case without example, even in
the poets); Annal., ii., 57, atrox ac dissentire manifestus; Agr., 25,
paratu magno, majorefama, uti mos est de ignotis, u oppugnasse ultro,"
castella adorti. Compare Livy, iv., 31, civitas vinci insueta, 7rd/Uc
X^tTTTj TiaSdv, tniTTJdeioc noielv, diatyepeiv r£ Ti\iric bpgyeoOai,

ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. lUl

y. For the accusative, and sometimes for the dative, and for the
former chiefly when a substantive in the same case goes before : An-
nal., xiii., 15, quia nullum crimen neque jubere ccedem fratris palam
audebat (compare Cic, Tusc, i., 26, ut Jovi bibere ministraret) ; An-
nal., iv., 56, f actus natura et consueludine exercitus (r<p) velare odium
fallacibus blanditiis ; Dial., 10, tamquam minus obnoxium sit (t&)
offendere poetarum quam oratorum studium. Compare Xen., Apol.
Socr., 14, Iva en [laKkov — amcuai rw kfj,e TETLfiyadac vno datfiovcov.
See above, On the Brevity, &c, III., f. There is another Graecism
in those cases where the particle (&gts, so as) is implied in the in-
finitive : Annal., xi., 1, non extimuisse contionem populi Romani, fateri,
gloriamque facinoris ultro petere; xii., 50, atrox hiems, seu parum
provisi commeatus et orta ex utroque tabes percellunt Vologesen omit-
tere prcesentia. Compare Thucydides, iii., 6, rrjg fj.ev fiaTidGorjc elpyovf
\it] xpfjodcu, MvTL?i7)vaiovc.

The Subjunctive, after the manner of the Greek optative, is used
both by other writers and by Tacitus to imply that a thing has been
done frequently : Annal., i., 27, postremo deserunt tribunal, ut quis
— occurreret, manus intentantes; chap. 44, si tribuni, si legio indus-
triam — adprobaverant, retinebat ordines : ubi avaritiam aut crudeli-
tatem consensu objectavissent, solvebatur militia (ovc fiev idot evrdtcTog
— Ibvrac — knyvec). Concerning the use of the Participle, compare,
On the Brevity, &c., III., i. Evidently after the Greek fashion,
which is adopted also by Sallust, we read in Tacitus invito, cupienti,
volenti miki est, for nolo, cupio, volo : Annal., i., 59, ut quibusque
helium invitis aut cupientibus erat, axdofievotc rj 7]6o[ievolc tjv, Agr., 18,
ut quibus bellum volentibus erat. We may find an explanation of this
in the passages in which volens has the same sense as gratum (just as
gnarus is used for notus): Hist., iii., 52, Muciano volentia rescripsere
(Sallust, volentia ; lebi facturus videbatur) ; and Annal., ii., 4, Ario-
burzanem — volentibus Armeniis prcefecit (compare Soph., CEd. Col.,
] 505, TtodovvTL npovtyavnc) ; Sail., Jug., 76, pamas ipsi volentes pepen-
dere. Add, lastly, the following phrases, which are actually translated
from the Greek, and which are common in the poets, Sallust, Livy,
and others, namely, est for licet, and amare for solere : Germ., 5, est
videre apud illos argentea vasa; Annal., iv., 9, utferme amat posterior
adulatio; Zoti, <j>i?\,el.

d. In the use of Particles.

a. Vereor is omitted before the particle ne (see above, on the
ellipsis of verbs), as in Greek authors we have pjj tovto aXkuc exy*
The particle cum is often wanting (as in Ovid) ; Annul., iii., 64, quin-
decimviri septemviris simul ; iv., 55, Hypcepeni Trallianique Laodicenis
ac Magnetibus simul; vi., 9, Appius Silanus Scauro Mamerco simuU
Compare Horn., Od.fiy., 723, bcuai uoc ouov TpdQev yd' eyevovro.

IlV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

/?. Annul., xvi., 9, donee a centurione — tamquam in pugna caderet
(so Suetonius, Otlw, 5, ab hoste cadere ; Nepos de regibus, iii., 3, periit
a morbo) — ftavelv vnb tiv'oc. AnnaL, ii., 47, Magnetes a Sipylo, as on
coins we read Mayvrjoia and Utirvhov. Compare Livy,i., 50, Turnus
Herdonius ab Aricia (Aricimis) ferociter in absentem Tarquinium erat
invectus.

y. The preposition in is often used to give greater force where,
from the common form of speech, you would expect ad, or simply a
case of the noun, or some other construction : in id, in hoc, etc tovto
(Livy, Velleius, and the poets); in majus celebrare (Livy and Sallust),
and the like phrases, knl to fieZ^ov noofielv, in unum consulere, etc fiiav
[3ov?iev£LV, in unum cedere, elg ev epx^odat (Livy, Sallust), in longum,
in presens, elg tipag, elg to napov (Livy, Sallust, Cicero), in tantum, in
vulgvs, in cetera, in diversum; AnnaL, xii., 35, plus vulnerum in nos et
pierce que ccedes oriebantur ; ii., 47, asperrima in Sardianos lues ; chap.
39, forma hand dissimili in dominum erat; as the Greeks say, elg
ndvTa, elg dyadov elnelv, kg <p66ov, elg una eotKev. AnnaL, iv., 25,
aderant semisomnos in barbaros (see above, On the Brevity, &c,
V., a., under syllepsis) ; as eg -&povovg e&vTO, k(f>dvrj Tilg elg 66ov.

6. We find answering to the Greek phrases, ol TOTe avdpwTcot, r\
e^alcpvng \ieTaaTaaig, Agr., 25, universes ultra gentes ; AnnaL, xiii.,
41, cuncta extra, tecfis tenus, sole inlustria fuere (compare Livy, xxiii.,
27, omni circa agro potiuntur) ; AnnaL, i., 27, is ante alios atate et
gloria belli (excelling others); Hist., ii., 76, tua ante omnes experientia;
v., 12, propriique muri labore et opere ante alios.

e. Adverbs are joined with the substantive verbs instead of ad-
jectives : longe, velocius, frustra, impune est, as in Greek authors we
have 6yjv, inaoTaTG) elvac ; and bene, male, recte est, are the common
forms of expression in speaking of the state of a person's health.

IV. The Form of Expression itself is Poetical; as, equestris
procella, aliquid ultra mortale gaudium accipere, arbiter rerum, dira
quies, in limine belli, conjux sex partus enixa, trucidati stmt sine nostro
sanguine, sera juvenum Venus, marcentem pacem nutrire, vita populi
Romani per incerta maris et tempestatum quotidie volvitur. This
poetical language consists generally in the following particulars :

a. Inanimate Objects are spoken of as having life, whence he
not only speaks thus of animals : Germ., 9, ne armentis quidem suus
honor aut gloria frontis, but, also, still more boldly, AnnaL, i , 79,
quin ipsum Tiberim nolle prorsus accolis fluviis orbatum minore gloria
% fluere ; xv., 15,flumen — vi equorum perrupere (as if it were a hostile
army); Germ., 40, est in insula Oceani castum nemus; Hist., v., 6,
prcecipuum montium Libanum erigit ( Judaea), mirum dictu tantos inter

ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. lv

ardores opacum fidumque nivibus ; idem amnem Jordanen fundit alit-
| que; Germ., 27, sepulcrum ccespes erigit; Annal., xv., 62, lacrimas
eorum modo sermone, modo intentior in modum coercentis ad firmitu-
dinem revocat ; Hist., i., 17, circumsteterat interim palathnn publico,
exspectatio magni secreti impatiens ; chap, ii., opus adgredior opimum
casibus, atrox proeliis, discors seditionibus, ipsa etiam pace scevum ; An-
nal., i., 31, multa seditionis ora vocesque ; chap. 61, incedunt masstos
locos, at the end : ubi infelici dextra — mortem invenerit.

b. The Prosopopoeia of Time is very frequent: Annal., vi., 51,
morum quoque tempora illi diversa : egregium vita famaque (tempus),
quoad privatus — fuit; occultum ac subdolum fingendis virtutihus, donee
Germanicus ac Drusus superfuere; idem inter bona malaque mixtust
&c, whence it is clear that in these things, also, variety has been
aimed at; Germ., 30, disponere diem, vallare noctem; Hist., i., 80,
obsequia meliorum nox abstulerat ; Annal., xiii., 17, nox eadem necem
Britannici et rogum conjunxit ; chap. 33, idem annus plures reos ha-
buit ; iv., 15, idem annus alio quoque luctu Casarem adjicit alterum
ex geminis Drusi liberis extinguendo ; i., 54, idem annus novas cceri-
monias accepit addito sodalium Augustalium sacerdotio ; Agr., 22,
tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes aperuit; Hist., v., 10, proxi-
mus annus civili bello intentus; Annal., iv., 31, quern vidit sequens
&tas prcepotentum, venalem ; xv., 38, fessa aut rudis pueritia. cetas ; xiv.,
33, si quos imbellis sexus aut fessa &tas — attinuerat. Livy has not im-
frequently used this form of expression, as well as Velleius, Pliny
the elder, Silius, and others; compare Cicero, Brut., 92, interim me
qucestorem Siciliensis excepit annus.

C. TO THE NAMES OF NATIONS AND OF MEN ARE POETICALLY JOINED
VERBS, WHICH PROPERLY REFER TO THE APPELLATIVE TO WHICH
THOSE NAMES SHOULD HAVE BEEN ADDED IN THE GENITIVE, Or Cer-
tainly verbs are made to refer to men which, in their common use,
are only joined to appellatives and abstract nouns: Annal., ii., 25,
ipse majoribus copiis Marsos inrumpit ; chap. 56, Cappadoces in for-
mam provincice redacti Quintum Veranium legatum accepere; xii.,
58, tributum Apamensibus terra motu convolsis — remissum; Agr., 22,
vastatis usque ad Taum — nationibus ; Hist., ii., 87, nee colonic modo
aut municipia congestu copiarum, sed ipsi cultores arvaque, maturis
jam fru gibus, ut hostile solum vastabantur ; Annal., ii., 25, populatur,
exscindit non ausum congredi hostem; xii., 49, dum socios magis quam
kostes prcedatur ; xvi., 13, in qua (urbe) omne mortalium genus vis
pestilential depopulabatur ; Agr., 41, tot militares viri cum tot cohorti-
bus expugnati et capti (where Walch, comparing the expression to
Thucydides's use of eKizolLopnelv, quotes Justin., iii., 4, 11, expugnatis
veteribus incolis; Lucret., iv., 1008, reges expugnare / Livy, xxiii., 30,

lvi ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS.

dbsessos fame expugnavit; to which add, Curt., iii., 1, 7, se scire inex
pitgnabiles esse; ix., 10, 7, tria simul agmina populabantur Indos — •
maritime) s Ptolemceus, ceteros ipse rex et ab alia parte Leonnatns ure-
bant; Livy, xxviii., 6, finitimos depopulabantur / Epit., 47, lllyrios —
vastaverant). Annal., xii., 25, se quoque accingeret juvene partem
curarum capessituro ; iii., 63, Milesios Dareo rege niti; iv., 19; hos
corripi, dilato ad tempus Sabino, placitum; Hist., ii., 71, Valerium
Marinum destinatum a Galba consulem distulit ; chap. 95, magna et
miser a civitas, eodem anno Othonem Vitelliumque passa; iv., 52, amicos
tempore, fortuna — imminui, transferri, desinere (that is, their atten-
tions, their very friendship) ; Annal., iv., 42, Merulam — albo senatorio
erasit; vi., 42, civitas — conditoris Seleuci retinens (that is, of his insti-
tutions). Compare Quintil., viii., 6, 25, kominem devorari (that is,
his goods), Plinius, Hist. Nat., vi., 24, regi — percontanti postea nar-
ravit Romanos et Ccesarem; vii., 2, supra hos extrema in parte mon*
Hum Trispithami Pygmceique narrantur. And in the same way the
older writers also use loqui, narrare.

C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

SITU, MORIBUS ET POPULIS GERMANISE.

SUMMARY.
Chap. I. Situation of Germany. II. Its inhabitants probably indigenous.
— Authors of the race. — Origin of the name. III. A Hercules among
the Germans also. — Baritus. — Altar of Ulysses. IV. The Germans an
unmixed race. — Their physical conformation. V. Nature of the country.
— Contains no gold, no silver. — These metals held in no estimation.

VI. Arms of the Germans : their cavalry, infantry, mode of warfare.

VII. Their kings, leaders, priesthood. VIII. Spirit displayed by their
women, and respect shown them. — Veleda. — Aurinia. IX. Their deities,
sacred rites. — No images of their divinities. X. Auspices, lots. — Pre-
sages derived from horses, from captives. XI. Public deliberations and
assemblies. XII. Accusations, punishments, dispensing of justice.
XIII. Youths adorned with a shield and framea ; companions of the
chieftains, their valor and wide-spread reputation. XIV. Warlike spirit
and pursuits of the race. XV. Season of peace, hunting, indolence. —
Presents bestowed upon the chieftains. XVI. No cities. — Their vil-
lages, dwellings ; caves serving as a retreat in whiter, and as recepta-
cles for grain, &c. XVII. Attire of the men, of the women. XVIII.
Matrimonial engagements strictly adhered to. — Dowry brought by the
husband. XIX. Purity of female morals. — Punishment of adultery.
XX. Mode of rearing children. — Laws of succession. XXI. The enmi-
ties as well as friendships espoused of one's father or near relation. —
Price of homicide. — Hospitality. XXII. Bathing, mode of life, quar-
rels of the intoxicated, deliberations at banquets. XXIII. Drink. —
Food. XXIV. Public spectacles. — Fondness for gambling. XXV.
Slaves, freedmen. XXVI. Taking interest unknown. — Agriculture. —
Seasons. XXVII. Funerals, tombs, mourning. XXVIII. Institutions
and customs of individual tribes. — Early migrations of the Gauls into Ger-
many.— The Helvetii, Aravisci, Boii, Osi. — Tribes of German origin : the
Treveri, Nervii, Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes, Ubii. XXIX. The B atavi,
a branch of the C'atti— The Mattiaci.— The tithe-lands. XXX., XXXI.
Country of the Catti, their physical character, military discipline, mar-
tial vows. XXXII. The Usipii, the Tencteri : their superiority in cav-
alry. XXXIII. Settlements of the Bructeri seized upon and occupied

Z C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

by the Chamavi and Angrivarii. XXXIV. The Dulgibini, Chasuari,
Frisii. XXXV. The Cauci, distinguished for their love of peace,
their "justice, and other virtues. XXXVI. The Cherusci and Fosi, con-
quered by the Catti. XXXVII. The Cimbri. — Roman overthrows. —
The Germans triumphed over rather than conquered. XXXVIII. The
Suevi, their numbers, their customs. XXXIX. The Semnones, religious
rites, human sacrifices. XL. The Langobardi, Reudigni, Aviones, An-
gli, &c. — The worship of Hertha common to all. XLI. The Hermun-
duri. XL II. The Narisci, Marcomanni, duadi. XL III. The Marsigni,
Gothini, Osi, Buri, &c. — The Naharvali; their deities, termed Alcij
the Gotones, Rugii ; Lemovii. XL IV. The Suiones, powerful with
their fleets. XLV. The Mare Pigrum (Frozen Ocean). — The iEstyi,
worshipers of the mother of the gods, gatherers of amber. — Over the
Sitones a female reigns. XL VI. The Peucini, Venedi, Fenni. — Their
savage character and poverty. — The Hellusii and Oxiones, fables re-
specting them.

I. Germania omnis a Gallis Raetisque et Pannoniis
Rheno et Danubio fluminibus, a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo
metu aut montibus, separatur. Cetera Oceanus ambit,
latos sinus et insularum immensa spatia complectens, nu-
per cognitis quibusdam gentibus ac regibus, quos bellura
aperuit. Rhenus, Raeticarum Alpium inaccesso ac pi'se-
cipiti vertice ortus, modico flexu in Occidentem vers as,
septentrionali Oceano miscetur. Danubius, molli et cle-
menter edito montis Abnobae jugo efFusus, plures populos
adit, donee in Ponticum mare sex meatibus erumpat , sep-
timum enim os paludibus hauritur.

II. Ipsos Germanos indigenas crediderim, minimeque
aliarum gentium adventibus et hospitiis mixtos ; quia nee
terra olim, sed classibus, advehebantur, qui mutare sedes
quaerebant: etinmensus ultra, utque sic dixerim, adversus
Oceanus raris ab orbe nostro navibus aditur. Quis porro,
praeter periculum horridi et ignoti maris, Asia aut Africa
aut Italia relicta, Germaniam peteret, informem terris,
asperam ccelo, tristem cultu adspectuque, nisi si patria
sit % Celebrant carminibus antiquis (quod unum apud illos
memoriae et annalium genus est) Tuisconem Deu??i, terra
editum, et filium Mannum, originem gentis conclitoresque.

DE GERMANIA. CAP. II.-IV. 3

Manno tres filios adsignant, e quorum nominibus proximz
Oceano Ingcevones, medii Herminones, ceteri Istcevones xo-
cejitur. Quidam autem, licentia vetustatis, plures Deo or-
tos, plures que gentis adjyellationes, Marsos, Gambrivios,
Suevos, Vandalios adfirmant : eaque vera et antiqua nomina.
Ceterum Germanice vocabulum recens et nuper additum ;
quoniam, qui primi Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint,
ac nunc Tungri, tunc Germani vocati sint. Ita nationis
nomen non gentis evaluisse paullatim, ut omnes, primum a
victore ob metum, mox a seipsis invento nomine, Germani
vocarentur.

III. Fuisse apud eos etHerculem memorant, primumque
omnium virorum fortium ituri in prcelia canunt. Sunt
illis haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu, quern baritum
vocant, accendunt animos,futuraequepugnae fortuiiam ipso
cantu augurantur : terrent enim trepidantve, prout sonuit
acies ; nee tarn vocis ille, quam virtutis concentus videatur.
Adfectatur praecipue asperitas soni et fractum murmur,
objectis ad os scutis, quo plenior et gravior vox repereussu
intumescat. Ceterum et TJlixem, quidam opinantur, longo
illo etfabuloso errore in hunc Oceanum delatum, adisse Ger-
manice terras, Asciburgiumque, quod in ripa Rheni situm
liodieque incolitur, ab illo constitutum nominatumque. Aram
quin etiam Ulixi consecratam, adjecto Laertes patris nomine,
eodem loco olim repertam ; monumentaque et tumulos quos-
dam, Grcecis litteris inscriptos, in confinio Germanice Rceti-
ceque adhuc exstare. Quae neque confirmare argumentis,
neque refellere in animo est : ex ingenio suo quisque de^
mat, vel addat fidem.

IV. Ipse eorum opinionibus accedo, qui Germania
fopulos nullis aliarum nationum connubiis infectos, pro-
priam et sinceram et tantum sui similem gentem exstitisse,
arbitrantur. Unde habitus quoque corporum, quamquam
in tanto hominum numero,idem omnibus ; truces et caerulei
oculi, rutilae coman, magna corpora et tantum ad impetum

4 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

valida. Laboris atque operum non eadem patientia : mini-
meque sitim aestumque tolerare, frigora atque inediam
coelo solove adsueverunt.

V. Terra, etsi aliquanto specie difFert, in universum
tamen aut silvis horrida, aut paludibus foeda : humidior,
qua Gallias ; ventosior, qua Noricura ac Pannoniam ad-
spicit : satis ferax, frugiferarum arborum patiens, pecorum
foecunda, sed plerumque inprocera. Ne armentis quidem
suus honor, aut gloria frontis : numero gaudent, eaeque
solae et gratissimae opes sunt. Argentum et aurum pro-
pitii an irati dii negaverint dubito. Nee tamen adfirma-
verim, nullam G-ermaniae venam argentum aurumve gig-
nere : quis enim scrutatus est ] possessione et usu haud
perinde adficiuntur. Est videre apud illos argentea vasa,
legatis et principibus eorum muneri data, non in aliavili-
tate, quam quae liumo finguntur: quamquam proximi, ob
usum commerciorum, aurum et argentum in pretio habent,
formasque quasdam nostrae pecuniae agnoscunt atque eli-
gunt : interiores simplicius et antiquius permutatione
mercium utuntur. Pecuniam probant veterem et diu
notam, serratos, bigatosque. Argentum quoque magis
quam aurum sequuntur, nulla adfectione animi, sed quia
numerus argenteorum facilior usui est promiscua ac vilia
mercantibus.

VI. Ne ferrum quidem superest, sicut ex genere telo-
rum conligitur. Rari gladiis, aut majoribus lanceis utun-
tur. Hastas, vel ipsorum vocabulo frameas, gerunt, an-
gusto et brevi ferro, sed ita acri, et ad usum habili, ut
eodem telo, prout ratio poscit, vel cominus vel eminus
pugnent. Et eques quidem scuto frameaque contentus
est: pedites et missilia spargunt, plura singuli, atque in
inmensum vibrant, nudi aut sagulo leves. Nulla cultus
jactatio : scuta tantum lectissimis coloribus distinguunt :
paucis loricae : vix uni alterive cassis, aut galea. Equi
non forma, non velocitate conspicui. Sed nee variare

DE GERMANIA. CAP. VI.-VIII. 5

gyros, in morem nostrum, docentur. In rectum, aut uno
flexu dextros agunt, ita conjuncto orbe, ut nemo posterior
sit. In universum aestimanti, plus penes peditem roboris :
eoque mixti proeliantur, apta et congruente ad equestrem
pugnam velocitate peditum, quos ex omni juventute de-
]ectos, ante aciem locant. Definitur et numerus : centeni
ex singulis pagis sunt ; idque ipsum inter suos vocantur :
et quod primo numerus fuit, jam nomen et honor- est.
Acies per cuneos componitur. Cedere loco, dummodo
rursus instes, consilii quam formidinis arbitrantur. Cor-
pora suorum etiam in dubiis proeliis referunt. Scutum
reliquisse, praecipuum flagitium : nee aut sacris adesse, aut
concilium inire, ignominioso fas ; multique superstites bel-
lorum infamiam laqueo finierunt.

VII. Reges ex nobilitate ; duces ex virtute sumunt.
Nee regibus infinita aut libera potestas : et duces exemplo
potius, quam imperio : si promti, si conspicui, si ante
aciem agant, admiratione praesunt. Ceterum, neque ani-
madvertere, neque vincire, ne verberare quid em, nisi'
sacerdotibus permissum : non quasi in pcenam, nee ducis
jussu, sed velut deo imperante, quern adesse bellantibus
credant : efiigiesque et signa quaedam, detracta lucis, in
proelium ferunt. Quodque praecipuum fortitudinis incita-
mentum est, non casus, nee fortuita conglobatio turmam
aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propinquitates ; et in
proximo pignora, unde feminarum ululatus audiri, unde
vagitus infantium. Hi cuique sanctissimi testes, hi maximi
laudatores. Ad matres, ad conjuges vulnera ferunt: nee
illae numerare, aut exigere plagas pavent : cibosque et
hortamina pugnantibus gestant.

VIII. Memoriae proditur, quasdam acies, inclinatas jam
et labantes, a feminis restitutas, constantia precum et
objectu pectorum, et monstrata cominus captivitate, quam
longe. impatientius feminarum suarum nomine timent :
adeo, ut efficacius obligentur animi civitatum, quibus inter

6 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

obsides puellaD quoque nobiles imperantur. Inesse quin
etiam sanctum aliquid et providum putant : nee aut con-
silia earum adspernantur,'aut responsa negligunt. Vidi-
mus, sub divo Vespasiano, Veledam, diu apud plerosque
numinis loco habitam. Sed et olim Auriniam et cora-
plures alias venerati sunt, non adulatione, nee tamquam
facerent deas.

IX. Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt, cui certis die-
bus humanis quoque hostiis litare fas habent. Herculem
ac Martem concessis animalibus placant.-^ Pars Suevorum
et Isidi sacrificat : unde caussa et origo peregrino sacro,
parum comperi,nisi quod signum ipsum, in modum liburnae
figuratum, docet advectam religionem. Ceterum, nee
cohibere parietibus deos, neque in ullam humani oris
speciem adsimilare, ex magnitudine ccelestium arbitrantur.
Lucos ac nemora consecrant; deorumque nominibus ad-
pellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia vident.

X. Auspicia sortesque, ut qui maxime, observant.
Sortium consuetudo simplex^ Virgam, frugiferae arbori
decisam, in surculos amputant, eosque, notis quibusdam
discretos, super candid am vestem temere ac fortuito spar-
gunt. Mox, si publice consulatur, sacerdos civitatis, sin
privatim, ipse paterfamilias, precatus deos, coelumque sus-
picions, ter singulos tollit, sublatos, secundum impressam
ante notam, interpretatur. Si prohibuerunt, nulla de
eadem re in eundem diem consultatio ; isin permissum,
auspiciorum adhuc fides exigitur. Et illud quidem etiam
hie notum, avium voces volatusque interrogare : proprium
gentis, equorum quoque prassagia ac monitus ex peri ri.
Publice aluntur iisdem nemoribus ac lucis candidi, et nullo
mortali opere contacti : quos pressos sacro curru sacerdos
ac rex vel princeps civitatis comitantur, hinnitusque ac
fremitus observant. Nee ulli auspicio major fides, non
solum apud plebem, sed apud proceres, apud sacerdotes:
se enim ministros deorum, illos conscios putant. Est et

DE GERMANTA. €AP. X.-XII. 7

alia observatio auspiciorum, qua gravium bellorum eventus
explorant. Ejus gentis, cum qua bellum est, captivum,
quoquo modo interceptum, cum electo popularium suorum,
ritriis quemque armis, committunt : victoria hujus vel
'*lius pro praejudicio accipitur.

XL De miiioribus rebus principes consultant ; de majo-
ribus omnes: ita tamen, ut ea quoque, quorum penes ple-
bem arbitrium est, apud principes pertractentur. Coeunt,
nisi quid fortuitum et subitum incident, certis diebus, cum
aut inchoatur luna, aut impletur : nam agendis rebus hoc
auspicatissimum initium credunt. Nee dierum numerum,
ut nos, sed noctium computant. Sic constituunt, sic con-
dicunt ; nox ducere diem videtur. IUud ex libertate
vitium, quod non simul, nee ut jussi conveniunt, sed et
alter et tertius dies cunctatione coeuntium absumitur. Ut
turbae placuit, considunt armati. Silentium per sacer-
dotes, quibus turn et coercendi jus est, imperatur. Mox
rex, vel princeps, prout aetas cuique, prout nobilitas, prout
decus bellorum, prout facundia est, audiuntur, auctoritate
suadendi magis, quam jubendi potestate. Si displicuit sen-
tentia, fremitu adspernantur ; sin placuit, frameas concuti-
unt. Honoratissimum adsensus genus est, armis laudare.

XII. Licet apud consilium accusare quoque et dis-
crimen capitis intendere. Distinctio poenarum ex delicto.
Proditores et transfugas arboribus suspendunt: ignavos et
imbelles et corpore infames coeno ac palude, injecta in-
super crate, mergunt. Diversitas supplicii illuc respicit,
tamquam scelera ostendi oporteat, dum puniuntur, flagitia
abscondi. Sed et levioribus delictis pro modo poena.
Equorum pecorumque numero convicti multantur. Pars
multae regi, vel civitati, pars ipsi, qui vindicatur, vel pro-
pinquis ejus exsolvitur. Eliguntur in iisdem conciliis et
principes, qui jura per pagos vicosque reddant. Centeni
singulis ex plebe comites, consilium simul et auctoritas,
adsunt.

8 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

XIII. Nihil autem neque publicae neque privatae rei,
nisi armati agunt. Sed arma sumere non ante cuiquam
moris, quam civitas sufFecturum probaverit. Turn in ipso
consilio, vel principum aliquis, vel pater, vel propinquus,
scuto frameaque juvenem ornant. Hasc apud illos toga,
hie primus juventse honos : ante hoc domus pars videntur,
mox reipublicae. Insignis nobilitas, aut magna patrum
merita, principis dignationem etiam adolescentulis ad-
signant : ceteris robustioribus ac jam pridem probatis ad-
gregantur : nee rubor, inter comites adspici. Gradus
quin etiam et ipse comitatus habet, judicio ejus, quern
sectantur : magnaque et comitum semulatio, quibus primus
apud principem suum locus ; et principum, cui plurimi et
acerrimi comites. Haec dignitas, hae vires, magno semper
electorum juvenum globo circumdari, in pace decus, in
bello praesidium. Nee solum in sua gente cuique, sed
apud finitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea gloria est, si
numero ac virtute comitatus emineat: expetuntur enim
legationibus, et muneribus ornantur, et ipsa plerumque
fama bella profligant.

XIV. Cum ventum in aciem, turpe principi virtute
vinci, turpe comitatui virtutem principis non adaequare.
Jam vero infame in omnem vitam ac probrosum, supers ti-
tem principi suo ex acie recessisse. Ilium defendere,
tueri, sua quoque fortia facta gloriae ejus adsignare, prae-
cipuum sacramentum est. Principes pro victoria pugnant ;
comites pro principe. Si civitas, in qua orti sunt, longa
pace et otio torpeat; plerique nobilium adolescentium
petunt ultro eas nationes, quae turn bellum aliquod gerunt;
quia et ingrata genti quies, et facilius inter ancipitia cla-
rescant, magnumque comitatum non nisi vi belloque tue-
are. Exigunt enim principis sui liberalitate ilium bellato-
rem equum, illam cruentam victricemque frameam. Nam
epulae, et convictus, quamquam incomti, largi tamen ap-
paratus, pro stipendio cedunt. Materia munificientiae per

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XIV.-XVII. 9

bella et raptus. Nee arare terram, aut exspectare annum,
tarn facile persuaseris, quam vocare hostes et vulnera
mereri. Pigrum quin imrao et iners videtur, sudore ad-
quirere, quod possis sanguine parare.

XV. Quotiens bella non ineunt, multum venatibus, plus
per otium transigunt, dediti somno ciboque. Fortissimus
quisque ac bellicosissimus nihil agens, delegata domus et
penatium et agrorum cura feminis senibusque et infir-
missimo cuique ex familia, ipsi hebent : mira diversitate
naturae, cum iidem homines sic ament inertiam et oderint
quietem. Mos est civitatibus, ultro ac viritim conferre
principibus vel armentorum, vel frugum, quod pro honore
acceptum etiam necessitatibus subvenit. Gaudent prae-
cipue finitimarum gentium donis, quae non modo a singulis,
sed et publice mittuntur ; electi equi, magna arm a, pha-
lerae, torquesque. Jam et pecuniam accipere docuimus.

XVI. Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari, satis
notum est : ne pati quidem inter se junctas sedes. Colunt
discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit.
Vicos locant, non in nostrum morem, connexis et cobae-
rentibus aedificiis: suam quisque domum spatio circumdat,
sive adversus casus ignis remedium, sive inscitia aedifi-
candi. Ne caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum
usus : materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speci-
em aut delectationem. Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt
terra, ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac lineamenta
colorum imitetur. Solent et subterraneos specus aperire,
eosque multo insuper fimo onerant, suflfugium hiemi et
receptaculum frugibus : quia rigorem frigorum ejusmodi
locis molliunt ; et, si quando hostis advenit, aperta popu-
latur, abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur, aut eo ipse
fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt.

XVII. Tegumen omnibus sagum, fibula, aut, si desit
spina consertum : cetera intecti totos dies juxta focun?
atque ignem agunt. Locupletissimi veste distinguuntur

10 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

noil fluitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singu-
los artus expriraente. Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi
ripae negligenter, ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus
per commercia cultus. Eligunt feras, et detracta velamina
spargunt maculis, pellibusque belluarum, quas exterior
Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit. Nee alius feminis
quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amicti-
bus velantur, eosque purpura variant, partemque vestitus
superioris in manicas non extendunt; nudse brachia ac
lacertos.

XVIII. Sed et proxima pars pectoris patet : quamquam
severa illic matrimonia; nee ullam morum partem magis
laudaveris : nam prope soli barbarorum singulis uxoribus
contend sunt, exceptis admodum paucis, qui non libidine,
sed ob nobilitatem, plurimis nuptiis ambiuntur. Dotem
non uxor marito, sed uxori maritus, ofFert. Intersunt
parentes et propinqui, ac munera probant, munera non
ad delicias muliebres quaesita, nee quibus nova nupta
comatur ; sed boves et frenatum equum et scutum cum
framea gladioque. In haec munera uxor accipitur : atque
invicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro affert. Hoc maximum
vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos conjugates deos arbitran-
tur. Ne se mulier extra virtutum cogitationes extraque
bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis matrimonii auspiciis
admonetur, venire se laborum periculorumque sociam,
idem in pace, idem in proelio passuram ausuramque. Hoc
juncti boves, hoc paratus equus, hoc data arma denuntiant.
Sic vivendum, sic pereundum : accipere se, quae liberis
inviolata ac digna reddat, quae nurus accipiant, rursusque
ad nepotes referant.

XIX. Ergo septae pudicitia agunt, nullis spectaculorum
illecebris, nullis conviviorum irritationibus corruptae. Lit-
terarum secreta viri pariter ac feminae ignorant. Paucis-
sima in tarn numerosa gente adulteria; quorum poena
praesens, et mantis permissa. Accisis crinibus, nudatam,

DE GEEMANIA. CAP. XIX.-XXI.

coram propinquis, expellit domo maritus, ac per omnem
vicum verbere agit. Publicatae enim pudicitia3 nulla ve-
nia; non forma, non setate, non opibus maritum invenerit.
Nemo enim illic vitia ridet; nee corrumpere et corrumpi
saeculum vocatur. Melius quidem adliuc eae civitates, in
quibus tantum virgines nubunt, et cum spe votoque uxoris
semel transigitur. Sic unum accipiunt maritum, quo modo
unum corpus unamque vitam, ne ulla cogitatio ultra, ne
longior cupiditas, ne tamquam maritum, sed tamquam
matrimonium, ament. Numerum liberorum finire, aut
quemquam ex agnatis necare, flagitium habetur : plusque
ibi boni mores valent, quam alibi bonae leges.

XX. In omni domo nudi ac sordidi, in hos artus, in
haec corpora, quae miramur, excrescunt. Sua quemque
mater uberibus alit, nee ancillis ac nutricibus delegantur.
Dominum ac servum nullis educationis deliciis dignoscas.
Inter eadem pecora, in eadem humo degunt, donee aetas
separet ingenuos, virtus agnoscat. Serajuvenum Venus;
eoque inexhausta pubertas. Nee virgines festinantur;
eadem juventa, similis proceritas. Pares validaeque mi-
scentur, ac robora parentum liberi referunt. Sororum
filiis idem apud avunculum, qui apud patrem honor. Qui-
dam sanctiorem arctioremque hunc nexum sanguinis ar-
bitrantur, et in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigunt; tam-
quam ii et animum firmius, et domum latius teneant.
Herjedes tamen successoresque sui cuique liberi; et nul-
lum testamentum. Si liberi non sunt, proximus gradus in
possessione fratres, patrui, avunculi. Quanto plus propin-
quorum, quo major aninium numerus, tanto gratiosior
senectus, nee ulla orbitatis pretia.

XXI. Suscipere tarn inimicitias, seu patris, seu propin-
qui, quam amicitias, necesse est. Nee inplacabiles durant.
Luitur enim etiam homicidium certo armentorum ac pe-
corum numero, recipitque satisfactionem universa domus :
utiliter in publicum ; quia periculosiores sunt inimicitiae

12 C CORNELIUS TACITUS

juxta libertatem. Convictibus et hospitiis non alia gens
effusius indulget. Quemcumque mortalium arcere tecto,
nefas habetur : pro fortuna quisque adparatis epulis ex-
cipit. Cum defecere, qui modo hospes fuerat, monstrator
hospitii et comes : proximam domum non invitati adeunt:
nee interest : pari humanitate accipiuntur. Notum igno-
tumque, quantum ad jus hospitii, nemo discernit. Abe-
unti, si quid poposcerit, concedere moris : et poscendi in-
vicem eadem facilitas. Gaudent muneribus : sed nee data
inputant, nee acceptis obligantur. Victus inter hospites
comis.

XXII. Statim e somno, quern plerumque in diem extra-
hunt, lavantur/saepius calida, ut apud quos plurimum hiems
occupat. Lauti cibum capiunt : separatee singulis sedes
et sua cuique mensa. Turn ad negotia, nee minus saepe ad
convivia, procedunt armati. Diem noctemque continuare
potando, nulli probrum. Crebras, ut inter vinolentos, rixae,
raro conviciis, saepius caede et vulneribus transiguntur.
Sed etde reconciliandis invicem inimicis etjungendis ad-
finitatibus et adsciscendis principibus, de pace denique ac
bello, plerumque in conviviis consultant :. tamquam nullo
inagis tempore aut ad simplices cogitationes pateat animus,
aut ad magnas incalescat. Gens non astuta, nee callida,
aperit adhuc secreta pectoris licentia joci. Ergo detecta
et nuda omnium mens postera die retractatur, et salva
utriusque temporis ratio est. Deliberant, dum fingere
nesciunt: constituunt, dum errare non possunt.

XXIII. Potui humor ex hordeo aut frumento, in quan-
dam similitudinem vini eorruptus. Proximi ripae et vinum
mercantur. Cibi simplices ; agrestia poma, recens fera,
aut lac concretum. Sine adparatu, sine blandimentis, ex-
pellunt famem. Adversus sitim non eadem temperantia.
Si indulseris ebrietati, suggerendo quantum concupiscunt,
haud minus facile vitiis, quam armis, vincentur.

XXIV. Genus spectaculorum unum atque in omni ccetu

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXIV.-XXVI. 13

idem. Nudi juvenes, quibus id ludicrum est, inter gladios
se atque infestas frameas saltu jaciunt. Exercitatio artem
paravit, ars decorem : non in quaestum tamen, aut merce-
dem : quamvis audacis lasciviae pretium est voluptas
spectantiura. Ale am (quod mirere) sobrii inter seria ex-
ercent, tanta lucrandi perdendive temeritate, ut, cum om-
nia defecerunt, extremo ac novissimo jactu de libertate
et de corpore contendant. Victus voluntariam servitutem
adit : quamvis juvenior, quamvis robustior, adligari se ac
venire patitur. Ea est in re prava pervicacia : ipsi fidem
vocant. Servos conditionis hujus per commercia tradunt,
ut se quoque pudore victorias exsolvant.

XXV. Ceteris servis, non in nostrum morem, discriptis
per familiam ministeriis, utuntur. Suam quisque sedem,
suos penates regit. Frumenti modum dominus, aut pe-
coris, aut vestis, ut colono, injungit ; et servus hactenus
paret. Cetera domus officia uxor ac liberi exsequuntur.
Verberare servum ac vinculis et opere coercere, rarum.
Occidere solent, non disciplina et severitate, sed impetu et
ira, ut inimicum, nisi quod impune. Libertini non multum
supra servos sunt, raro aliquod momentum in domo, num-
quam in civitate ; exceptis dumtaxat iis gentibus, quae
regnantur. Ibi enim et super ingenuos et super nobiles
ascendunt : apud ceteros impares libertini libertatis argu-
mentum sunt.

XXVI. Fenus agitare, et in usuras extendere, ignotum :
ideoque magis servatur, quam si vetitum esset. Agri, pro
numero cultorum, ab universis in vices occupant ur, quos
mox inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur : facili-
tatem partiendi camporum spatia prgestant. Arva per an-
nos mutant; et superest ager : nee enim cum ubertate
et amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria conse-
rant et prata separent et hortos rigent : sola terras seges
imperatur. Unde annum quoque ipsum non in totidem
digerunt species : hiems et ver et aestas intellectum, ao

14 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

vocabula habent; auctumni perinde nomen ac bona igno-
rantur.

XXVII. Funerum nulla ambitio : id solum observalur, ut
corpora clarorum virorum certis lignis crementur. Struem
rogi nee vestibus, nee odoribus, curnulant : sua cuique
arma, quorundam igni et equus adjicitur. Sepulcrum
cespes erigit. Monumentorum arduum et operosum hono-
rem, ut gravem defunctis, adspernantur. L amenta ac
lacrimas cito, dolorem et tristitiam tarde ponunt. Feminis
lugere honestum est; viris meminisse. Haec in commune
de omnium Germanorum origine ac moribus accepimus:
nunc singularum gentium instituta ritusque, quatenus
differant, quae nationes e Germania in Gallias commigra-
verint, expediam.

XXVIII. Validiores olim Gallorum res fuisse, summus
auctorum divus Julius tradit : eoque credibile est, etiamGal-
los in Germaniam transgressos. Quantulum enim amnis
obstabat, quo minus, ut quaeque gens evaluerat, occuparet
permutaretque sedes, promiscuas adhuc et nulla regnorum
potentia divisas ] Igitur inter Hercyniam silvam Rhenum-
que et Mcenum amnes Helvetii, ulteriora Boii, Gallica
utraque gens, tenuere. Manet adhuc Boiemi nomen,
significatque loci veterem memoriam quamvis mutatis
cultoribus. Sed utrum Aravisci in Pannoniam ab Osis,
Germanorum natione, an Osi ab Araviscis in Germaniam,
commigraverint, cum eodem adhuc sermone, institutis,
moribus utantur, incertum est : quia, pari olim inopia ac
libertate, eadem utriusque ripae bona malaque erant.
Treveri et Nervii circa adfectationem Germanicae originis
ultro ambitiosi sunt, tamquam, per hanc gloriam sanguinis,
a similitudine et inertia Gallorum separentur. Ipsam
Rheni ripam haud dubie Germanorum populi colunt,
Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes. Ne Ubii quidem quam-
quam Romana colonia esse meruerint, ac libentius Agrip-
pinen&es conditoris sui nomine vocentur, origine cru-

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXVIII.-XXX. 15

bescunt, transgressi olim et experimento fidei super ipsam
Rheni ripam collocati, ut arcerent, non ut custodirentur.

XXIX. Omnium harum gentium virtute preecipui Ba-
tavi, non multum ex ripa, sed insulam Rheni amnis, colunt,
Cattorum quondam populus, et seditione domestica in eas
sedes transgressus, in quibus pars Romani imperii fierent.
Manet honos et antiques societatis insigne : nam nee tri-
butis contemnuntur, nee publicanus adterit ^ exemti
oneribus et collationibus, et tantum in usum prceliorum
sepositi velut tela atque arma, bellis reservantur. Est in
eodem obsequio et Mattiacorum gens. Protulit enim
magnitudo Populi Romani ultra Rhenum, ultraque veteres
terminos, imperii reverentiam. Ita sede finibusque in sua
ripa, mente animoque nobiscum agunt, cetera similes Ba-
tavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae suae solo et coelo acrius
animantur. Non numeraverim inter Germanise populos,
quamquam trans Rhenum Danubiumque consederint, eos,
qui Decumates agros exercent. Levissimus quisque Gal-
lorum, et inopia audax, dubias possessionis solum occu-
pavere. Mox limite acto promotisque praesidiis, sinus
imperii et pars provinciae habentur.

XXX. Ultra hos Catti initium sedis ab Hercynio saltu
inchoant, non ita effusis ac palustribus locis, ut ceterae
civitates, in quas Germania patescit: durarit siquidem
colles, paulatimque rarescunt ; et Cattos suos saltus Her-
cynius prosequitur simul atque deponit. Duriora genti
corpora, stricti artus, minax vultus, et major animi vigor.
Multum (ut inter Germanos) rationis ac sollertiae : prae-
ponere electos, audire praepositos, nosse ordines, intelli-
gere occasiones, differre impetus, disponere diem, vallare
noctem, fortunam inter dubia, virtutem inter certa nume-
rare : quodque rarissimum, nee nisi Romanae disciplines
concessum, plus reponere in duce, quam in exercitu.
Omne robur in pedite, quern super arma ferramentis quo-
que et copiis onerant. Alios ad proelium ire videas, Cat-

16 C. CORNELIUS TACITJS

tos ad bellum : rari excursus et fortuita pugna. Eques-
trium sane virium id proprium, cito parare victoriam, cito
cedere. Velocitas juxta formidinem, cunctatio propior
constantiaa est.

XXXI. Et aliis Germanorum populis usurpatum rara
et privata cuj usque audentia apud Cattos in consensum
vertit, ut primum adoleverint, crinem barbamque submit-
tere, nee, nisi hoste caeso, exuere votivum obligatumque
virtuti oris habitum. Super sanguinem et spolia revelant
frontem, seque turn demum pretia nascendi retulisse dig-
nos que p atria ac parentibus ferunt. Ignavis et imbellibus
manet squalor. Fortissimus quisque ferreum insuper an-
nulum (ignominiosum id genti) velut vinculum gestat,
donee se caede hostis absolvat. Plurimis Cattorum hie
placet habitus. Jam que canent insignes, et hostibus simul
suisque monstrati : omnium penes hos initia pugnarum ;
haec prima semper acies visu torva. Nam ne in pace
quidem vultu mitiore mansuescunt. Nulli domus, aut
ager, aut aliqua cura : prout ad quemque venere, aluntur :
prodigi alieni, contemtores sui 5 donee exsanguis senec-
tus tarn duras virtuti impares faciat.

XXXII. Proximi Cattis certum jam alveo Rhenum,
quique terminus esse sufficiat, Usipii ac Tencteri colunt.
Tencteri, super solitum bellorum decus, equestris dis-
ciplines arte praecellunt; nee major apud Cattos peditum
laus, quam Tencteris equitum. Sic instituere majores,
posteri imitantur. Hi lusus infantium, haec juvenum aemu-
latio; perseverant senes. Inter familiam et penates et
jura successionum equi traduntur; excipit films, non, ut
cetera, maximus natu, sed prout ferox bello et melior.

XXXIII. Juxta Tencteros Bructeri olim occurrebant;
nunc Chamavos et Angrivarios immigrasse narratur, pulsis
Bructeris ac penitus excisis, vicinarum consensu nation urn;
seu superbiae odio, seu praedae dulcedine, seu favore quo-
dam erga nos deorum : nam ne spectaculo quidem prcelii

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXXIII.-XXXVI. 17

invidere : super sexaginta milia, non armis telisque Ro-
manis, sed, quod magnificentius est, oblectationi oculisque
ceciderunt. Maneat, quasso, duretque gentibus, si non
amor nostri, at certe odium sui ; quando, urgentibus im-
perii fatis, nihil jam praestare fortuna majus potest, quam
hostium discordiam.

XXXIV. Angrivarios et Chamavos a tergo Dulgibini
et Chasuari cludunt, aliseque gentes, haud perinde memo-
ratae. A fronte Frisii excipiunt. Majoribus minoribusque
Frisiis vocabulum est ex modo virium. Utraeque nationes
usque ad oceanum Rheno praetexuntur, ambiuntque im-
mensos insuper lacus et Romanis classibus navigatos.
Ipsum quin etiam oceanum ilia tentavimus : et superesse
adhuc Herculis columnas fama vulgavit, sive adiit Her-
cules, seu, quidquid ubique magniiicum est, in claritatem
ejus referre consensimus. Nee defuit audentia Druso
Germanico : sed obstitit oceanus in se simul atque in Her-
culem inquiri. Mox nemo tentavit ; sanctiusque ac reve-
rentius visum de actis deorum credere quam scire.

XXXV. Hactenus in Occidentem Germaniam novimus.
In Septemtrionem ingenti flexu redit. Ac primo statim
Caucorum gens, quamquam incipiat a Frisiis, ac partem
litoris occupet, omnium, quas exposui, gentium lateribus
obtenditur, donee in Cattos usque sinuetur. Tarn im-
mensum terrarum spatium non tenent tantum Cauci, sed
et implent, populus inter Germanos nobilissimus, quique
magnitudinem suam malit justitia tueri : sine cupiditate,
sine impotentia, quieti secretique, nulla provocant bella,
nullis raptibus aut latrociniis populantur : idque praecip-
uum virtutis ac virium argumentum est, quod, ut su-
periores agant, non per injurias adsequuntur. Promta
tamen omnibus arma, ac, si res poscat, exercitus : pluri-
mum virorum equorumque : et quiescentibus eadem fama.

XXXVI. In latere Caucorum Cattorumque Cherusci
nimiam ac marcentem diu pacem illacessiti nutrierunt :

18 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

idque jucundius, quam tutius, fuit : quia inter impotentes
et validos falso quiescas; ubi manu agitur, modestia ac
probitas nomina superioris sunt. Ita, qui olim boni cequi*
que Cherusci, nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur : Cattis vic-
toribus fortuna in sapientiam cessit. Tracti ruina Che-
ruscorum et Fosi, contermina gens, adversarum rerum ex
aequo socii, cum in secundis minores fuissent.

XXXVII. Eundem Germaniae sinum proximi oceano
Cimbri tenent, parva nunc civitas, sed gloria ingens :
veterisque famae late vestigia manent, utraque ripa castra
ac spatia, quorum ambitu nunc quoque metiaris molem
manusque gentis et tarn magni exitus fidem. Sexcentesi-
mum et quadragesimum annum urbs nostra agebat, cum
primum Cimbrorum audita^unt arma, Caecilio Metello ac
Papirio Carbone coss. Ex quo si ad alterum imperatoris
Trajani consulatum computemus, ducenti ferme et decern
anni colliguntur. Tamdiu Germania vincitur. Medio
tarn longi aevi spatio, multa invicem damna : non Samnis,
non Pceni, non Hispaniae Galliaeve, ne Parthi quidem
saepius admonuere : quippe regno Arsacis acrior est Ger-
manorum libertas. Quid enim aliud nobis, quam caedem
Crassi, amisso et ipso Pacoro, infra Ventidium dejectus
Oriens objecerit] At Germani Carbone et Cassio et
Scauro Aurelio et Servilio Caepione Cnaeo quoque Manlio
fusis vel captis, quinque simul consulares exercitus Populo
Romano, Varum tresque cum eo legiones etiam Caesari
abstulerunt : nee impune Caius Marius in Italia, divus
Julius in Gallia, Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus in suis
eos sedibus perculerunt. Mox ingentes Caii Caesaris
minae in ludibrium versae. Inde otium, donee occasione
discordiae nostras et civilium armorum, expugnatis legio-
num hibernis, etiam Gallias adfectavere : ac rursus pulsi
inde, proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi
sunt.

XXXVIII. Nunc de Suevis dicendum est, quorum non

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXXVIII.-XL. 19

una, ut Cattorum Tencterorumve, gens : majorem enim
Germaniae partem obtinent, propriis adhuc nationibus
nominibusque discreti, quamquam in commune Suevi vo-
centur. Insigne gentis obliquare crinem nodoque sub-
stringere. Sic Suevi a ceteris Germanis, sic Suevorum
ingenui a servis separantur. In aliis gentibus, seu cog-
natione aliqua Suevorum, seu (quod saepe accidit) imita-
tione, rarum et intra juventae spatium ; apud Suevos usque
ad canitiem horrentem capillum retro sequuntur, ac saepe
in ipso solo vertice ligant. Principes et ornatiorem ha-
bent : ea cura formae, sed innoxia. Neque enim ut ament
amenturve ; in altitudinem quamdam et terrorem, adituri
bella, comti, ut hostium oculis ornantur.

XXXIX. Vetustissimos st nobilissimosque Suevorum
Semnones memorant. Fides antiquitatis religione ftrma-
tur. Stato tempore in silvam, auguriis patrum et prisca
formidine sacram, omnes ejusdem sanguinis populi lega-
tionibus coeunt, caesoque publice homine celebrant barbari
ritus horrenda primordia. Est et alia luco reverentia.
Nemo nisi vinculo ligatus ingreditur, ut minor, et potes-
tatem numinis prae se ferens : si forte prolapsus est, attolli
et insurgere baud licitum : per humum evolvuntur : eoque
omnis superstitio respicit, tamquam inde initia gentis, ibi
regnator omnium deus, cetera subjecta atque parentia.
Adjicit auctoritatem fortuna Semnonum. Centum pagis
habitant : magnoque corpore efricitur, ut se Suevorum
caput credant.

XL. Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat : plurimis
ac valentissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium, sed
proeliis et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde et
Aviones et Angli et Varini et Eudoses et Suardones et
Nuithones fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur. Nee quid-
quam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Hertliam,
id est, Terram matrem, colunt, eamque intervenire rebus
hominum, invehi populis, arbitrantur. Est in insula

oceani castum nemus, dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste
contectum : attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse
penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bubus feminis multa
cum veneratione prosequitur. Laeti tunc dies, festa loca,
quaecunque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non bella
ineunt, non arma sumu^t ; clausum omne ferrum : pax et
quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, donee idem
sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam templo
redd at. Mox vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis,
numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant;
quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror
sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit illud quod tantum perituri
vident.

XL I. Et haec quidem pars Suevorum in secretiora
Germanise porrigitur. Propior (ut, quo modo paulo ante
Rhenum, sic nunc Danubium sequar) Hermundurorum
civitas, fida Romanis, eoque solis Germanorum non in
ripa commercium, sed penitus atque in splendidissima
Raetiae provinciae colonia : passim et sine custode transe-
unt ; et, cum ceteris gentibus arma modo castraque nostra
ostendamus, his domos villasque patefecimus non concu-
piscentibus. In Hermunduris Albis oritur, flumen incli-
tum et notum olim ; nunc tantum auditur.

XLII. Juxta Hermunduros Narisci, ac deinde Marco-
manni et Quadi agunt. Praecipua Marcomannorum gloria
viresque, atque ipsa etiam sedes, pulsis olim Boiis, virtute
parta. Nee Narisci Quadive degenerant. Eaque Ger-
manise velut frons est, quatenus Danubio peragitur. Mar-
comannis Quadisque usque ad nostram memoriam reges
manserunt ex gente ipsorum, nobile Marobodui et Tudri
genus ; jam et externos patiuntur. Sed vis et potentia
regibus ex auctoritate Romana : raro armis nostris, seepius
pecunia juvantur.

XLIIL Nee minus valent retro Marsigni, Gothini, Osi,
Buri : terga Marcomannorum Quadorumque cludunt : e

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XLIII.-XLIV. 21

quibus Marsigni et Buri sermone cultuque Suevos referunt,
Gothinos Gallica, Osos Pannonica lingua, coarguit non
esse Germanos, et quod tributa patiuntur : partem tribu-
torum Sarmatae, partem Quadi, ut alienigenis imponunt.
Gothini, quo magis pudeat, et ferrum effodiunt: omnes-
que hi populi pauca campestrium, ceterum saltus et ver-
tices montium insederunt. Dirimit enim scinditque Sue-
viam continuum montium jugum, ultra quod plurimae
gentes agunt : ex quibus latissime patet Lygiorum nomen
in plures civitates diffusum. Valentissimas nominasse
sufficiet, Arios, Helveconas, Manimos, Elysios, Naharva-
los. Apud Naharvalos antiquae religionis lucus ostenditur.
Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu : sed deos, interpreta-
tione Romana, Castorem Pollucemque memorant. Ea vis
numini; nomen Aids: nulla simulacra, nullum peregrinae
superstitionis vestigium: ut fratres tamen, ut juvenes,
venerantur. Ceterum Arii super vires, quibus enumerates
paulo ante populos antecedunt, truces, insitae feritati arte
ac tempore lenocinantur : nigra scuta, tincta corpora :
atras ad prcelia noctes legunt; ipsaque formidine atque
umbra feralis exercitus terrorem inferunt, nullo hostium
sustinente novum ac velut infernum adspectum : nam
primi in omnibus proeliis oculi vincuntur. Trans Lygios
Gotones regnantur, paulo jam adductius quam ceterae
Germanorum gentes, nondum tamen supra libertatem.
Protinus deinde ab oceano Rugii et Lemovii: omniumque
harum gentium insigne, rotunda scuta, breves gladii, et
erga reges obsequium.

XLIV. Suionum hinc civitates, ipso in oceano, praeter
viros armaque classibus valent : forma navium eo differt,
quod utrinque prora paratam sniper appulsui frontem
agit : nee velis ministrantur, nee remos in ordinem lateri-
bus adjungunt. Solutum, ut in quibusdam fluminum, et
mutabile, ut res poscit, hinc vel illinc remigium. Est
apud illos et opibus honos, eoque unus imperitat, nullis

22 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS

jam exceptionibus, non precario jure parendi : nee arma,
ut apud ceteros G-ermanos, in promiscuo, sed clausa sub
custode et quidem servo, quia subitos hostium incursus
prohibet oceanus, otiosae porro arraatorum manus facile
lasciviunt: enimvero neque nobilem, neque ingenuurn, ne
libertinum quidem, armis praeponere regia utilitas est.

XLV. Trans Suionas aliud mare, pigrum ac prope im-
motum, quo cingi cludique terrarum orbem hinc fides ;
quod extremus cadentis jam solis fulgor in ortus edurat
adeo clarus, ut sidera hebetet; sonum insuper audiri foi
masque deorum et radios capitis adspici persuasio adjicit.
Illuc usque et fama vera tantum natura. Ergo jam dextro
Suevici maris littore iEstyorum gentes alluuntur: quibus
ritus habitusque Suevorum ; lingua Britannicae propior.
Matrem deum venerantur : insigne superstition is formas
aprorum gestant. Id pro armis omnique tutela securum
deae cultorem etiam inter hostes praestat. Rarus ferri,
frequens fustium usus. Frumenta ceterosque fructus pa-
tientius, quam pro solita Germanorum inertia, laborant.
Sed et mare scrutantur, ac soli omnium succinum, quod
ipsi glesum vocant, inter vada atque in ipso littore legunt.
Nee, quae natura, quaeve ratio gignat, ut barbaris, quaesi-
tum compertumve. Diu quin etiam inter cetera ejecta-
menta maris jacebat, donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen :
ipsis in nullo usu ; rude legitur, inform e perfertur, preti-
umque mirantes accipiunt. Succum tamen arborum esse
intelligas, quia terrena quaedam atque etiam volucria ani-
malia plerumque interlucent, quae implicata humore mox
durescente materia cluduntur. Fecundiora igitur nemora
lucosque sicut Orientis secretis, ubi tura balsamaque su-
dantur, ita Occidentis insulis terrisque inesse, crediderim;
quae vicini solis radiis expressa atque liquentia in proxi-
mum mare labuntur, ac vi tempestatum in adversa littora
exundant. Si naturam succini admoto igni tentes, in
modum taedae accenditur, alitque flammam pinguem et

DE GERMANIA. CAP. XLV.-XLVI. 23

olentem : mox at in picem resinamve lentescit. Suioni-
bus Sitonum gentes continuantur. Cetera similes uno
differ unt, quod femina dominatur : in tantum non modo a
libertate sed etiam a servitute degenerant. Hie Sueviae
finis.

XL VI. Peucinorum Venedorumque et Fennorum na-
tiones Germanis an Sarmatis adscribam, dubito, quam-
quam Peucini, quos quidam Bastarnas vocant, sermone,
cultu, sede ac domiciliis ut Germani agunt. Sordes omni-
um ac torpor: procerum connubiis mixtis nonnihil in Sar-
matarum habitum foedantur. Venedi multum ex moribus
traxerunt. Nam quidquid inter Peucinos Fennosque sil-
varum ac montium erigitur, latrociniis pererrant : hi tamen
inter Germanos potius referuntur, quia et domos fingunt et
scuta gestant et peditum usu ac pernicitate gaudent; quge
omnia diversa Sarmatis sunt, in plaustro equoque viventf"
bus. Fennis mira feritas, foeda paupertas : non arma, non
equi, non penates : victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile
humus : sola in sagittis spes, quas, inopia ferri, ossibus
asperant : idemque venatus viros pariter ac feminas alit.
Passim enim comitantur, partemque praedae petunt. Nee
aliud infantibus ferarum imbriumque suffugium, quam ut
in aliquo ramorum nexu contegantur : hue redeunt juve-
nes, hoc senum receptaculum. Sed beatius arbitrantur
quam ingemere agris, inlaborare domibus, suas alienasque
fortunas spe metuque versare. Securi adversus homines,
securi adversus deos, rem difficillimam adsecuti sunt, ut
illis ne voto quidem opus esset. Cetera jam fabulosa :
Hellusios et Oxionas ora korninum * ultusque, corpora ataue
artus ferarurn gerere: quod eg;, ut incompertum, in me-
dium relinquam.

C, CORNELII TACITI

JULII AGRICOLtE.

C, CO RNE LIT TACIT I

JULII AGRICOLiE

VITA.

SUMMARY.
Chap. I. The custom of writing the lives of illustrious men an ancient one.
II. Dangerous, however, under bad princes. III. This custom resumed
by Tacittts, under the happy reign of Nerva, in honor of Agricola, the
writer's father-in-law. IV. Origin and education of Agricola. V. The
rudiments of the military art learned by him in Britain. VI. He mar-
ries.— Is appointed, in succession, quaestor, tribune, praetor, &c. VII.
His mother murdered during a hostile descent made by Otho's fleet on
the coast of Liguria, her lands ravaged, and a great part of her effects
carried off. — Agricola goes over to the side of Vespasian, and receives
the command of the 20th legion, in Britain. VIII. Excellent deport-
ment of Agricola while in command. IX. Returns to Rome. — Is called
by Vespasian to the patrician order, and invested with the government
of Aquitania. — Is chosen consul. — Betroths his daughter to Tacitus. — Is
appointed governor of Britain. X. Description of Britain. XI. Origin
of the Britons. — Their physical conformation, sacred rites, language,
general character. XII. Their military strength, form of government,
climate, soil, &c. XIII. Their cheerful submission to levies, tributes,
&c. — The expedition of Caesar into Britain. — Long neglect of the island
subsequently, on the part of the Romans. — Invasion of Britain in the
reign of Claudius, and restoration of the Roman authority. XIV. Opera-
tions of the consular governors. XV. Britons meditate a rebellion.
XVI. Boadicea, a female of royal descent, their leader. — Defeated by
Suetonius Paullinus. — Roman governors of inferior ability succeed Paul-
linus. XVII. Petilius Cerialis and Julius Frontinus restore affairs to
their former footing. — The former subdues the Brigantes, the latter the
Silures. XVIII. Agricola reduces the Ordovices, and the island Mo-
na.— He finally brings the whole province into a peaceful state. XIX.,
XX. His moderation, prudence, equity, &c, in regulating the affairs
of his province. XXI. Endeavors to reclaim the natives from their rude
and unsettled state by making them acquainted with the comforts of
civilized life. XXII., XXIII. New expeditions discover new nations
of Britons to the Romans, and fortresses are erected to keep them in
obedience. — Agricola' s candor as regarded the meritorious actions of

28 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

others. XXIV. Design formed by him of invading Hibernia. XXV -
XXVII. The conntries situated beyond Bodotria are explored. — The
Caledonians attack a portion of the forces of Agricola, but, after some
partial successes, are defeated by him, on his coming up with his other
forces. — New preparations made by the enemy. XXVIII. A cohort
of the Usipii, by a strange chance, circumnavigate the island of Britain.
. XXIX. Agricola loses his son, about a year old. — The Britons renew
the war, under Calgacus as their leader. XXX.-XXXII. Address of
Calgacus to his followers. XXXIII., XXXIV. Address of Agricola to
his soldiers. XXXV.-XXXVII. Fierce and bloody battle. XXXVIII.
Victory of the Romans. — Agricola orders Britain to be circumnavigated.
XX^vIX. The account of these operations received by Domitian with
outward expressions of joy, but inward anxiety. XL. He, nevertheless,
directs honors to be rendered to Agricola. — The latter returns to Rome,
and leads a modest and retired life. XLI. Often accused before Do-
mitian, in his absence, but as often acquitted. XLII. E«xcuses him-
self from taking a province as proconsul. XL III. Dies, not without
suspicion of having been poisoned by Domitian. XL IV. His age at
the time of his death. — His personal appearance, &c. XLV. Happy
in having ended his days before the atrocities of Domitian broke forth.
XL VI. General reflections.

I. Clarorum virorum facta moresque posteris tradere,
antiquitus usitatum, ne nostris quidem temporibus, quam-
quam incuriosa suorum setas omisit, quotiens magna aliqua
ac nobilis virtus vicit ac supergressa est vitium parvis
magnisque civitatibus commune, ignorantiam recti et in-
vidiam. Sed apud priores ut agere memoratu digna pro-
num magisque in aperto erat, ita celeberrimus quisque
ingenio, ad prodendam virtutis memoriam, sine gratia aut
ambitione, bonae tantum conscientiae pretio ducebatur.
Ac plerique suam ipsi vitam narrare fiduciam potius mo-
rum quam arrogantiam arbitrati sunt : nee id Rutilio et
Scauro citra fid em aut obtrectationi fuit : adeo virtutes
iisdem temporibus optime eestimantur, quibus facillime
gignuntur.

II. At mihi, nunc narraturo vitam defuncti hominis,
venia opus fuit ; quam non petissem, ni cursaturus tarn
sseva et infesta virtutibus tempora. Legimus, cum Aru-
leno Rustico Paetus Thrasea, Herennio Senecioni Prisons

AGRlCOhJE VITA. CAP. II.-III. 29

Helvidius laadati essent, capitale fuisse : neque in ipsos
modo auctores, sed in libros quoque eorum saevitum, dele-
gato triumviris ministerio, ut monumenta clarissimorum
ingeniorum in comitio ac foro urerentur. Scilicet illo igne
vocem populi Romani et libertatem -senatus et conscien-
tiam generis humani aboleri arbitrabantur, expulsis in-
super sapientise professoribus atque omni bona arte in
exilium acta, ne quid usquara honestum occurreret. De-
dimus profecto grande patientiee documentum : et sicut
vetus aetas vidit quid ultimuni in libertate esset, ita nos
.quid in servitute, ademto per inquisitiones et loquendi
audiendique commercio. Memoriam quoque ipsam cum
voce perdidissemus, si tarn in nostra potestate esset obli-
visci, quam tacere.

III. Nunc demum redit animus : et quamquam primo
statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar res olim dis-
sociabiles miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque
quotidie felicitatem temporum Nerva Trajanus, nee spem
modo ac votum securitas publica sed ipsius voti fiduciam
ac robur assumserit, natura tamen infirmitatis humanse
tardiora sunt remedia, quam mala; et, ut corpora lente
augescunt, cito exstinguuntur, sic ingenia studiaque op-
presseris facilius, quam revocaveris. Subit quippe etiam
ipsius inertiae dulcedo, et invisa primo desidia postremo
amatur. Quid % si per quindecim annos, grande mortalis
aevi spatium, multi fortuitis casibus, promtissimus quis-
que saevitia principis interciderunt 1 Pauci, ut ita dix-
erim, non modo aliorum, sed etiam nostri superstites
sumus; exemtis e media vita tot annis, quibus juvenes
ad senectutem, senes prope ad ipsos exactae aetatis ter-
minos, per silentium venimus. Non tamen pigebit, vel
incondita ac rudi voce, memoriam prioris servitutis ac
testimonium prassentium bonorum composuisse. Hie in-
terim liber, honori Agricolae soceri mei destinatus, pro-
fessione pietatis aut laudatus erit, aut excusatus.

30 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

IV. Cnaeus Julius Agricola, vetere et illustri Foro-
juliensium colonia ortus, utrumque avum procuratorem
Caesarum habuit, quae equestris nobilitas est. Pater Julius
Grascinus senatorii ordinis, studio eloquential sapientiae-
que notus, iisque virtutibus iram Caii Csesaris meritus :
nam que M. Silanum accusare jussus et, quia abnuerat,
interfectus est. Mater Julia Procilla fuit, rarae castitatis:
in hujus sinu indulgentiaque educatus, per omnem hones-
tarum artium cultum pueritiam adolescentiamque transe-
git. Arcebat eum ab illecebris peccantium, praeter ipsius
bonam integramque naturam, quod statim parvulus sedem
ac magistram studiorum Massiliam habuerat, locum Grraeca
comitate et provinciali parsimonia mixtum ac bene cora-
positum. Memoria teneo, solitum ipsum narrare, se in
prima juventa studium philosophies acrius, ultra qtcam con-
cession Romano ac senatori, hausisse, ni prudentia matris
incensum ac flagrantem animum coercuissei. Scilicet sub-
lime et erectum ingenium pulcbritudinem ac speciem ex-
celsae magnaeque glorias vehementius quam caute appete-
bat. Mox mitigavit ratio et aetas : retinuitque, quod est
difficillimum, ex sapientia modum.

V. Prima castrorum rudimenta in Britannia Suetonio
Paulino, diligenti ac moderato duci, approbavit, electus
quern contubernio aestimaret. Nee Agricola licenter,
more juvenum qui militiam in lasciviam vertunt, neque
segniter ad voluptates et commeatus titulum tribunatus et
inscitiam retulit : sed noscere provinciam, nosci exercitui,
discere a peritis, sequi optimos, nihil appetere in jacta-
tionem, nihil ob formidinem recusare, simulque anxius et
intentus agere. Non sane alias exercitatior magisque in
ambiguo Britannia fuit : trucidati veterani, incensae co-
loniae, intercepti exercitus ; turn de salute, mox de victo-
ria certavere. Quae cuncta etsi consiliis ductuque alterius
agebantur, ac summa rerum et recuperatae provinciae glo-
ria in ducem cessit, artem et usum et stimulos addidere

AGRICOL^E VITA. CAP. V.-VII. 31

juveni : intravitque animum militaris gloriae cupido, in-
grata temporibus, quibus sinistra erga eminentes interpre-
tation nee minus periculum ex magna fama, quam ex mala.

VI. Hinc ad capessendos magistratus in urbem di-
gressus,DomitiamDecidianam, splendidis natalibus ortam,
sibi junxit : idque matrimonium ad majora nitenti decus
ac robur fuit : vixeruntque mira eoncordia, per mutuam
caritatem et invicem se anteponendo ; nisi quod in bona
uxore tanto major laus, quanto in mala plus culpee est.
Sors quaesturae provineiam Asiam, proconsulem Salvium
Titianum dedit : quorum neutro corruptus est ; quam-
quam et provincia dives ac parata peccantibus, et pro-
consul in omnem aviditatem pronus, quantalibet facilitate
redemturus esset mutuam dissimulationem mali. Auctus
est ibi filia, in subsidium et solatium simul : nam filium
ante sublatum brevi amisit. Max inter quassturam ac
tribunatum plebis atque ipsum ejiam tribunatus annum
quiete et otio transiit, gnarus sub Nerone temporum, qui-
bus inertia pro sapientia fuit. Idem praeturae tenor et
silentium : nee enim jurisdictioyobvenerat. Ludos et in-
ania honoris modo rationis &x\ue abundantias duxit, uti
longe a luxuria, ita famae rjypior. Turn electus a G-alba
ad dona templorum recojj^pcenda, diligentissima conqui-
sitione fecit, ne cujus aitHrius sacrilegium respublica quam
Neronis sensisset.

VII. Sequens annus gravi vulnere animum domumque
ejus afflixit : nam classis Othoniana, licenter vaga, dum
Intemelios (Liguriae pars est) hostiliter populatur, matrem
Agricolae in praediis suis interfecit; praediaque ipsa et
magnam patrimonii partem diripuit, quae causa casdis
fuerat. Igitur ad solennia pietatis profectus Agricola,
nuntio affectati a Vespasiano imperii deprehensus, ac
statim in partes transgressus est. Initia principatus ac
statum urbis Mucianus regebat, admodum juvene Domi-
tiano, et ex paterna fortuna tantum licentiam usurpante.

32 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

Is missum ad delectus agendos Agricolam, integreque ac
strenue versatum, vicesimae legioni, tarde ad sacramentum
transgressae, praeposuit, ubi decessor seditiose agere nar-
rabatur; quippe legatis quoque consularibus nimia ac
formidolosa erat; nee legatus praetorius ad cohibendum
potens, incertum, suo an militum ingenio : ita successor
simul, et ultor electus, rarissima moderatione maluit videri
invenisse bonos, quam fecisse.

VIII. Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius Bolanus, placi-
dius, quam feroci provincia dignum est y temperavit Agri-
cola vim suam, ardoremque compescuit, ne incresceret,
peritus obsequi, eruditusque utilia honestis miscere. Brevi
deinde Britannia consularem Petilium Cerialem accepit.
Habuerunt virtutes spatium exemplorum. Sed primo
Cerialis modo labores et discrimina, mox et gloriam com-
municabat : saepe parti exercitus in experimentum, ali-
quando majoribus copiis ex eventu praefecit : nee Agri-
cola umquam in suam famam gestis exsultavit ; ad aucto-
rem et dacem, ut minister, fortunam referebat. Ita virtute
in obsequendo, verecundia in praedicando, extra invidiam,
nee extra gloriam erat.

IX. Revertentem ab legatione legionis divus Vespasi-
anus inter patricios adscivit, ac deinde provinciae Aqui-
taniae praeposuit, splendidae iiPlprirais dignitatis, admi-
nistratione ac spe consulatus, cui destinarat. Credunt
plerique, militaribus ingeniis subtilitatem deesse ; quia
castrensis jurisdictio secura et obtusior, ac plura manu
agens, calliditatem fori non exerceat. Agricola naturali
prudentia, quamvis inter togatos, facile justeque agebat.
Jam vero tempora curarum remissionumque divisa. Ubi
conventus ac judicia poscerent, gravis, intentus, severus,
et saepius misericors : ubi officio satisfactum, nulla ultra
potestatis persona : tristitiam et arrogantiam et avaritiam
exuerat : nee illi, quod est rarissimum, aut facilitas auc-
toritatem, aut severitas amorem deminuit. Integritatem

AGRICOLAE VITA. CAP. IX.-X. 33

atque abstinentiam in tanto viro referre, injuria virtutum
fuerit. Ne famam quidem, cui sa3pe etiam boni indulgent,
ostentanda virtute aut per artem quaesivit : procul ab
aemulatione adversus collegas, procul a contentione ad
versus procuratores, et vincere inglorium, et atteri sor-
didum arbitrabatur. Minus triennium in ea legatione
detentus, ac statim ad spem consulatus revocatus est,
comitante opinione, Britanniam ei provinciam dari: nullis
in hoc suis sermonibus, sed quia par videbatur. Haud
semper errat fama, aliquando et elegit. Consul egregiae
turn spei fiiiam juveni mihi despondit, ac post consulatum
collocavit; et statim Britanniae propositus est, adjecto
pontificatus sacerdotio.

X. Britanniae situm populosque, myitis scriptoribus
memoratos, non in comparationem curae ingeniive referam,
sed quia turn primum perdomita est ; itaque, quae priores,
, nondum comperta, eloquentia percoluere, rerum fide tra-
dentur. Britannia insularum, quas Romana notitia com-
plectitur, maxima, spatio ac coelo in orientem Germaniae,
in occidentem Hispaniae obtenditur : Gallis in meridiem
etiam inspicitur : septemtrionalia ejus, nullis contra terris,
vasto atque aperto mari pulsantur. Form am totius Bri-
tanniae Livius veterum, Fabius Rusticus recentium elo-
quentissimi auctores, oblongae scutulae vel bipenni as-
similavere : et est ea facies citra Caledoniam, unde et in
universum fama est transgressa : sed immensum et enorme
spatium procurrentium extremo jam littore terrarum velut
in cuneum tenuatur. Hanc oram novissimi maris tunc
primum Romana classis circumvecta insulam esse Bri-
tanniam affirmavit, ac simul incognitas ad id tempus in-
sulas, quas Orcadas vocant, invenit domuitque. Dispecta
est et Thule, quam hactenus nix et hiems abdebat ; sed
mare pigrum et grave remigantibus perhibent ne ventis
quidem perinde attolli : credo, quod rariores terrae mon-
tesque, causa ac materia tempestatum, et profunda moles

34 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

continui maris tardius impellitur. Naturam oceani atque
aestus neque quaerere hujus operis est, ac multi retulere:
unura addiderim : nusquam latius dominari mare, multum
fluminum hue atque illuc ferre,neclittore tenus accrescere
aut resorberi, sed influere penitus atque ambire, et jugis
etiam atque montibus inseri velut in suo.

XL Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint,
indigenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum.
Habitus corporum varii : atque ex eo argumenta : namque
rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, magni artus Ger-
manicam originem asseverant. Silurum colorati vultus, et
torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania, Iberos
veteres trajecisse easque sedes occupasse, fidem faciunt.
Proximi Gallis et similes sunt, seu durante originis vi, seu
procurrentibus in diversa terris positio cceli corporibus
habitum dedit : in universum tamen asstimanti, Gallos
vicinum solum occupasse, credibile est. Eorum sacra
deprehendas superstitionum persuasion e : sermo haud
multum diversus: in deposcendis periculis eadem audacia,
et, ubi advenere, in detrectandis eadem formido : plus
tamen ferociae Britanni prasferunt, ut quos nondum longa
pax emollierit. Nam Gallos quoque in bellis floruisse
accepimus : mox segnitia cum otio intravit, amissa virtute
pariter ac libertate. Quod Britannorum olim victis evenit ;
ceteri manent quales Galli fuerunt.

XII. In pedite robur : quaedam nationes et curru proeli-
antur : honestior auriga, clientes propugnant : olim re gi-
bus parebant, nunc per principes factionibus et studiis
trahuntur: nee aliud adversus validissimas gentes pro no-
bis utilius, quam quod in commune non consulunt. Rarus
duabus tribusque civitatibus ad propulsandum commune
periculum conventus : ita, dum singuli pugnant, universi
vincuntur. Ccelum crebris imbribus ac nebulis foedum ;
asperitas frigorum abest. Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis
mensuram, et nox clara et extrema Britanniae parte bre-

AGRICOLAE VITA. CAP. XII.-XIV. 35

vis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine inter-
noscas. Quod si nubes non officiant, adspici per noctem
soils fulgorem, nee occidere et exsurgere, sed transire affir-
mant. Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra
non erigunt tenebras, infraque ccelum et sidera nox cadit.
Solum, praster oleam vitemque et cetera calidioribus terris
oriri sueta, patiens frugum, fecundum : tarde mitescunt,
cito proveniunt: eadem utriusque rei causa, multus humor
terrarum coelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et
alia metalla, pretium victoriae : gignit et oceanus margarita,
sed subfusca et liventia. Quid am artem abesse legentibus
arbitrantur : nam in rubro mari viva ac spirantia saxis
avelli, in Britannia, prout expulsa sint, colligi: ego faci-
lius crediderim naturam margaritis deesse quam nobis
avaritiam.

XIII. Ipsi Britanni delectum ac tributa et injuncta im-
perii munera impigre obeunt si injurise absint : has aegre
tolerant, jam domiti ut pareant, nondum ut serviant.
Igitur primus omnium Romanorum divus Julius cum ex-
ercitu Britanniam ingressus, quamquam prospera pugna
terruerit incolas, ac littore potitus sit, potest videri osten-
disse posteris, non tradidisse. Mox bella civilia, et in
rempublicam versa principum arma, ac longa oblivio
Britanniae etiam in pace. Consilium id divus Augustus
vocabat, Tiberius praeceptum. Agitasse C. Caesarem de
intranda Britannia satis constat, ni velox ingenio, mobilis
pcenitentia, et ingentes adversus G-ermaniam conatus
frustra fuissent. Divus Claudius auctor operis, transvectis
legionibus auxiliisque, et assumto in partem rerum Ves-
pasiano : quod initium venturae mox fortunes fuit. Domitae
gentes, capti reges, et monstratus fatis Vespasianus.

XIV. Consularium primus Aulus Plautius praepositus,
ac subinde Ostorius Scapula, uter.que bello egregius : re-
dactaque paulatim in formam provinciae proxima pars
Britanniae : addita insuper veteranorum colonia. Quasdam

36 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

civitates Cogiduno regi donatse (is ad nostram usque
memoriam fidissimus mansit) vetere ac jam pridem recepta
Populi Romani consuetudine, ut haberet instrumenta ser-
vitutis et reges. Mox Didius G-allus parta a prioribus
continuit, paucis admodum castellis in ulteriora promotis,
per qua3 fama aucti officii quaereretur. Didium Veranius
excepit, isque intra annum exstinctus est. Suetonius hinc
Paulinus biennio prosperas res habuit, subactis nationibus
firmatisque praesidiis : quorum fiducia Monam insulam,
ut vires rebellibus ministrantem, aggressus, terga occasion!
patefecit.

XV. Nam que absentia legati remoto metu, Britanni
agitare inter se mala servitutis, conferre injurias et inter-
pretando accendere : nihil prqfici patientia, nisi ut gra-
viora, tamquam ex facili tolerantibus, imperentur. Sin-
gulos sibi olim reges fuisse, nunc binos imponi, e quibus
legatus in sanguinem, procurator in bona sceviret : ceque
discordiam prapositorum, ceque concordiam, subjectis ex-
itiosam : alterius manus, centuriones alterius, vim et con-
tumelias miscere. Nihil jam cupiditati, nihil libidini
exceptum. In prcelio fortiorem esse, qui spoliet : nunc ab
ignavis plerumque et imbellibus eripi domos, abstrahi liberos,
injungi delectus, tamquam mori tantum pro patria nescienti-
bus. Quantum enim iransisse militum, si sese Britanni
numerentl sic Ger manias excussisse jugum, etflumine, non
oceano, defendi : sibi patriam, conjuges, parentes illis ava-
ritiam et luxuriam causas belli esse : recessuros, ut dimes
Julius recessisset, modo virtutes ?najorum suorum cemula-y
rentur. Neve prcelii unius aut alterius eventu pavescerent :
plus impetus, major em constantiam, penes ?niseros esse. Jam
Britannorum etiam deos misereri, qui Romanum ducem
absentem, qui relegatum in alia insula exercitum detinerent :
jam ipsos, quod dijficillimum fuerit, deliberare : porro
in ejusmodi consiliis periculosias esse deprehendi, quam
audere.

VITA AGRICOLA. CAP. XVI.-XVII. 37

XVI. His atque talibus invicem instincti, Boadicea,
generis regii femina, duce (neque enim sexum in imperiis
discernunt) sumsere universi bellum : ac sparsos per
castella milites consectati, expugnatis praesidiis, ipsam
coloniam invasere, ut sedem servitutis : n^c ullum in bar-
baris saevitiae genus omisit ira et victoria. Quod nisi
Paulinus., cognito provinciae motu ,propere subvenisset,
amissa Britannia foret : quam unius prcslii fortuna veteri
patientiae restituit, tenentibus arma plerisque, quos con-
scientia defectionis et propius ex legato timor agitabat.
Hie cum egregius cetera, arroganter in deditos, et, ut
suae quoque injuriae ultor, durius consuleret, missus Petro-
nius Turpilianus, tamquam exorabilior, et delictis hostium
novus eoque poenitentias mitior, compositis prioribus, nihil
ultra ausus, Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit. Tre-
bellius segnior, et nullis castrorum experimentis, comitate
quadam curandi provinciam tenuit. Didicere jam barbari
quoque ignoscere,vitiis blandientibus; et interventus civil-
ium armorum praebuit justam segnitiae excusationem.
Sed discordia laboratum, cum assuetus expeditionibus
miles otio lasciviret. Trebellius, fuga ac latebris vitata
exercitus ira, indecorus atque humilis, precario mox pree-
fuit : ac velut pacti, exercitus licentiam, dux salutem, haec
seditio sine sanguine stetit. Nee Vettius Bolanus, ma-
nentibus adhuc civilibiis bellis, agitavit Britanniam dis-
ciplina : eadem inertia erga hostes, similis petulantia
castrorum : nisi quod innocens Bolanus, et nullis delictis
invisus, caritatem paraverat loco auctoritatis.

XVII. Sed, ubi cum cetero orbe Vespasianus et Britan-
niam reciperavit, magni duces, egregii exercitus, minuta
hostium spes. Et terrorem statim intulit Petilius Gerialis,
Brigantum civitatem, quae numerosissima provinciae totius
perhibetur, aggressus : mtflta prcelia, et aliquando non
incruenta: magnamque Brigantum partem aut victoria
amplexus, aut bello. Et cum Cerialis quidem alterius

38 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

successoris curam famamque obruisset, sustinuit quoque
molem Julius Frontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat,
validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit,
super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluc-
tatus.

XVIII. Hunc Britanniae statum, has bellorum vices
media jam aestate transgressus Agricola invenit, cum et
milites, velut omissa expeditione, ad securitatem, et hostes
ad occasionem, verterentur. Ordovicum civitas haud
multo ante adventum ejus, alam in finibus suis agentem,
prope universam obtriverat : eoque initio erecta provin-
cia, ut quibus bellum volentibus erat, probare exemplum
aut recentis legati animum opperiri. Turn Agricola —
quamquam transacta aestas, sparsi per provinciam numeri,
praesumta apud militem illius anni quies (tarda et con-
traria bellum inchoaturo), et plerisque custodiri suspecta
potius videbatur — ire obviam discrimini statuit; con-
tractisque legionum vexillis et modica auxiliorum manu,
quia in aequum degredi Ordovices non audebant, ipse ante
agmen, quo ceteris par animus simili periculo esset, erexit
aciem; caesaque prope universa gente, non ignarus, in-
standum famae, ac, prout prima cessissent, fore universa,
Monam insulam (cujus possessione revocatum Paulinum
rebellione totius Britanniae supra memoravi) redigere in
potestatem animo intendit. Sed, ut in dubiis consiliis,
naves deerant ; ratio et constantia ducis transvexit. De-
posits omnibus sarcinis, lectissimos auxiliarium, quibus
nota vada et patrius nandi usus, quo simul seque et arma
et equos regunt, ita repente immisit, ut obstupefacti hostes,
qui classem, qui naves, qui mare exspectabant, nihil ar-
duum aut invictum crediderint sic ad bellum venientibus.
Ita petita pace ac dedita insula, clarus ac magnus haberi
Agricola, quippe cui ingredienti provinciam, quod tempus
alii per ostentationem, aut officiorum ambitum transigunt,
labor et periculum placuisset. Nee Agricola prosperitate

AGRICOLiE VITA. CAP. XVIII.-XX. 39

rerum in vanitatem usus expeditionem aut victoriam vo-
cabat victos continuisse : ne laureatis quidem gesta prose-
cutus est, sed ipsa dissimulatione famae famam auxit,
aestimantibus quanta futuri spe tam magna tacuisset.

XIX. Ceterum animorum provinciae prudens, simulque
doctus per aliena experimenta, parum profici armis, si
injuria? sequerentur, causas bellorum statuit excidere. A
se suisque orsus, primum domum suam coercuit; quod
plerisque haud minus arduum est, quam provinciam regere.
Nihil per libertos servosque publicae rei : non studiis pri-
vatis, nee ex commendatione aut precibus centurionum
milites ascire, sed optimum quemque fidelissimum putare :
omnia scire, non omnia exsequi : parvis peccatis veniam,
magnis severitatem commodare : nee poena semper, sed
saepius pcenitentia contentus esse : officiis et administra-
tionibus potius non peccaturos praeponere, quam damnare
cum peccassent. Frumenti et tributorum auctionem
aequalitate munerum mollire, circumcisis quae in quaestum
reperta ipso tributo gravius tolerabantur. Namque per
ludibrium assidere clausis horreis, et emere ultro frumenta,
ac vendere pretio cogebantur. Devortia itinerum et lon-
ginquitas regionum indicebatur, ut civitates a proximis
hibernis in remota et avia deferrent, donee, quod omnibus
in promtu erat, paucis lucrosum fieret.

XX. Haec primo statim anno comprimendo, egregiarn
famam paci circumdedit ; quae vel incuria vel tolerantia
priorum haud minus quam bellum timebatur. Sed, ubi aes-
tas advenit, contracto exercitu, militum in agmine laudare
modestiam, disjectos coercere, loca castris ipse capere,
aestuaria ac silvas ipse praetentare, et nihil interim apud
hostes quietum pati, quo minus subitis excursibus popu-
laretur ; atque, ubi satis terruerat, parcendo rursus irrita-
menta pacis ostentare. Quibus rebus multae civitates,
quae in ilium diem ex aequo egerant, datis obsidibus, iram
posuere, et praesidiis castellisque circumdatae tatita ratione

40 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

curaque, ut nulla ante Britanniae nova pars illacessita
transient.

XXI. Sequens hiems saluberrimis consiliis absumta :
namque, ut homines dispersi ac rudes, eoque in bella fa-
ciles, quieti et otio per voluptates assuescerent, hortari pri-
vatim, adjuvare publice, ut templa, fora, domus exstrue-
rent,Jaudando promtos, et castigando segnes : ita honoris
aemulatio pro necessitate erat. Jam vero principum filios
liberalibus artibus erudire, et ingeniaBritannorum studiis
Gallorum anteferre, ut, qui modo linguam Bomanam ab-
nuebant, eloquentiam concupiscerent. Inde etiam habitus "
nostri honor et frequens toga : paulatimque discessum ad
delinimenta vitiorum, porticus et balnea et conviviorum
elegantiam : idque apud imperitos humanitas vocabatur,
cum pars servitutis esset.

XXII. Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes ape-
ruit, vastatis usque ad Taum (aestuario nomen est) nationi-
bus : qua formidine territi hostes, quamquam conflictatum
saevis tempestatibus exercitum lacessere non ausi ; ponen-
disque insuper ca=fellis spatium fuit. Adnotabant periti,
non alium ducem opportunitates locorum sapientius le-
gisse ; nullum ab Agricola positum castellum aut vi hostium
expugnatum, aut pactione ac fuga desertum. Crebrae
eruptiones ; nam adversus moras obsidionis annuis copiis
firmabantur. Ita intrepida ibi hiems, et sibi quisque
praesidio, irritis hostibus eoque desperantibus, quia soliti
plerumque damna aestatis hibernis eventibus pensare, turn
asstate atque hieme juxta pellebantur. Nee Agricola
umquam per alios gesta avidus intercepit : seu centurio,
seu praefectus, incorruptum facti testem habebat. Apud
quosdam acerbior in conviciis narrabatur ; ut bonis comis
erat, ita adversus malos injucundus : ceterum ex iracundia
nihil supererat; secretum et silentium ejus non timeres.
Honestius putabat offendere, quam odisse.

XXIII. Quarta eestas obtinendis, quae percunerat, in-

AGRICOLiE VITA. CAP. XXIII.r-XXV, 41

sumta ; ac, si virtus exercituum et Romani nominis gloria
pateretur, inventus in ipsa Britannia terminus. Nam
Clota et Bodotria, diversi maris aestibus per immensum
revectae, angusto terrarum spatio dirimuntur : quod turn
praesidiis firmabatur : atque omnis propior sinus tenebatur,
summotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus. — — —_..

XXIV. Quinto expeditionum anno nave prima trans-
gressus, ignotas ad id tempus gentes crebris simul ac
prosperis prceliis domuit : eamque partem Britanniae, qua3
Hiberniam adspicit, copiis instruxit in spem magis, quam
ob formidinem : siquidem Hibernia, medio inter Britan-
niam atque Hispaniam sita et Galiico quoque mari oppor-
tuna, valentissimam imperii partem magnis invicem usibus
miscuerit. Spatium ejus, si Britanniae comparetur, an-
gustius, nostri maris insulas superat. Solum ccelumque
et ingenia cultusque hominum haud multum a Britannia
differunt. Melius aditus portusque per commercia et
negotiatores cogniti. Agricola expulsum seditione do-
mestica unum ex regulis gentis exceperat, ac specie
amicitiae in occasionem retinebat. Saepe ex eo audivi,
legione una et modicis auxiliis debellari obtinerique Hi-
berniam posse. Idque etiam adversus Britanniam pro-
futurum, si Roman a ubique arma, et velut e conspectu
libertas tolleretur.

XXV. Ceterum aestate, qua sextum officii annum in-
choabat, amplexus civitates trans Bodotriam sitas, quia
motus universarum ultra gentium et infesta hostili exercitu
itinera timebantur, portus classe exploravit; quae, ab
Agricola primum assumta in partem virium, sequebatur
egregia specie, cum simul terra simul mari bellum impel-
leretur, ac saepe iisdem castris pedes equesque et nauticus
miles, mixti copiis et laetitia, sua quisque facta, suos casus
attollerent; ac modo sil varum et montium profunda, modo
•tempestatum ac fluctuum adversa, hinc terra et hostis, hinc
victus oceanus militari jactantia compararentur. Britan-

42 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

nos quoque, ut ex captivis audiebatur, visa classis obstupe-
faciebat, tamquam aperto maris sui secreto ultimum victis
perfugium clauderetur. Ad manus et arma conversi
Caledoniam incolentes populi, paratu magno, majore fama
(uti mos est de ignotis) oppugnasse ultro, castella adorti
metum ut provocantes addiderant; regrediendumque citra
Bodotriam, et excedendum potius quam pellerentur, specie
prudentium ignavi admonebant; cum interim cognoscit,
hostes pluribus agminibus irrupturos. Ac, ne superante
rmmero et peritia locorum circumiretur, diviso et ipse in
tres partes exercitu incessit.

XXVI. Quod ubi cognitum hosti, mutato repente con-
silio, universi nonam legionem, ut maxime invalidam,
nocte aggressi, inter somnum ac trepidationem csesis vigili-
bus, irrupere. Jamque in ipsis castris pugnabant, cum Ag-
ricola, iter hostium ab exploratoribus edoctus et vestigiis
insecutus, velocissimos equitum peditumque assultare ter-
gis pugnantium jubet, mox ab universis adjici clamorem :
et propinqua luce fulsere signa : ita ancipiti malo territi
Britanni ; et Romanis redit animus, ac, securi pro salute,
de gloria certabant. Ultro quin etiam irrupere ; et fuit
atrox in ipsis portarum angustiis prcelium, donee pulsi
hostes ; utroque exercitu certante, his, ut tulisse opem,
illis, ne eguisse auxilio viderentur. Quod nisi paludes et
silvae fugientes texissent, debellatum ilia victoria foret.

XXVII. Cujus constantia ac fama ferox exercitus, nihil
virtuti sua invium ; jpenetrandam Caledoniam, invenien-
dumque tandem Britannice terminum continuo jprozliorum
cursu, fremebant : atque illi modo cauti ac sapientes,
promti post eventum ac magniloqui erant : iniquissima
haecbellorum conditio est; prospera omnes sibi vindicant,
adversa uni imputantur. At Britanni non virtute, sed
occasione et arte ducis rati, nihil ex arrogantia remittere,
quo minus juventutem armarent, conjuges ac liberos in
loca tuta transferrent, coetibus ac sacrificiis conspirationem

AGRICOL^E VITA. CAF. XXVII.-XXIX. 43

civitatum sancirent : atque ita irritatis utrimque animis
discessum.

XXVIII. Eadem aestate cohors Usipiorum, per Germa-
nias conscripta, et in Britanniam transmissa, magnum ac
memorabile facinus ausa est. Occiso centurione ac militi-
bus, qui, ad tradendam disciplinam immixti manipulis,
exemplum et rectores habebantur, tres liburnicas adactis
per vim gubernatoribus ascendere : et uno remigrante,
suspectis duobus eoque interfectis, nondum vulgato rumore,
lit miraculum, praevehebantur. Mox hac atque ilia rapti,
et cum plerisque Britannorum sua defensantium proelio
congressi, ac saepe victores, aliquando pulsi, eo ad ex-
tremum inopiae venere, ut infirmissimos suorum, mox sorte
ductos, vescerentur. Atque ita circumvecti Britanniam,
amissis per inscitiam regendi navibus, pro praedonibus
habiti, primum a Suevis, mox a Frisiis intercepti sunt : ac
mere, quos per commercia venumdatos, et in nostram usque
ripam mutatione ementium adductos, indicium tanti casus
illustravit.

XXIX. Initio aestatis Agricola, domestico vulnere ictus,
anno ante natum filium amisit. Quern casum neque, ut
plerique fortium virorum, ambitiose, neque per lamenta
rursus ac moerorem muliebriter tulit ; et in luctu bellum
inter remedia erat. Igitur praemissa classe, quae pluribus
locis praedata magnum et incertum terrorem faceret, ex-
pedito exercitu, cui ex Britannis fortissimos et longa pace
exploratos addiderat, ad montem Grampium pervenit,
quern jam hostes insederant. Nam Britanni, nihil fracti
pugnae prioris eventu, et ultionem aut servitium exspec-
tantes, tandemque docti commune periculum concordia
propulsandum, legationibus et foederibus omnium civita-
tum vires exciverant. Jamque super triginta millia arma-
torum aspiciebantur, et adhuc affluebat omnis juventus,
et quibus cruda ac viridis senectus, clari bello, ac sua
quisque decora gestantes ; cum inter plures duces virtute

44 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

et genere prsestans, nomine Oalgacus, apud contractaml
multitudinem, proelium poscentem, in hunc modum locu-
tus fertur : —

XXX. Quotiens causas belli et necessitate™, nostram in-
tueor, magnus mihi animus est, hodiernum diem consensum-
que vestrum initium libertatis totius Brit annice fore. Nam |
et universi servitutis expertes, et nullce ultra terra, ac ne
mare quidem securum, imminente nobis classe Romana : ita
frazlium atque arma, qucefortibus honesta, eadem etiam ig-
navis tutissima sunt. Prior es pugnce, quibus adversus Ro-
manos varia fortuna certatum est, spem ac subsidium in
nostris manibus liabebant : quia nobilissimi totius Britan-
nia, eoque in ipsis penetralibus siti, nee servientium littora
aspicientes, oculos quoque a contactu dominationis inviola-
tos habebamus. Nos, terrarum ac libertatis extremos, re-
cessus ipse ac sinus fama in hunc diem defendit : nunc
terminus Britannia patet ; atque omne ignotum pro mag-
nijico est. Sed nulla jam ultra gens, nihil nisi Jluctus et
saxa : et infestiores Romani ; quorum superbiam frustra
"per obsequium et modestiam effugeris. Raptores orbis,
postquam cuncta vastantibus defuere terra?, et mare scru-
tantur : si locuples hostis est, avari ; si pauper, ambitiosi :
quos non Oriens, non Occidens satiaverit : soli omnium opes
atque inopiam pari affectu concupiscunt. Auferre, truci-
dare, rapere,falsis nominibus imperium ; atque, ubi solitu-
dinemfaciunt, pacem appellant.

XXXI. Liberos cuique ac propinquos suos natura caris-
simos esse voluit: hi per delectus, alibi servituri, auferuntur.
Conjuges sororesque, etsi hostilem libidinem effugiant, no-
mine amicorum atque hospitum polluuntur. Bona fortu-
nasque in tributum egerunt, annos infrumentum: corpora
ipsa ac manus, silvis ac paludibus emuniendis, verbera inter
ac contumelias, conterunt. Nata servituti mancipia semel
veneunt, atque ultro a dominis aluntur : Britannia servitu-
tem suam quotidie emit, quotidie pascit. Ac, sicut in/ami-

AGRICOLA. CAP. XXXI.-XXXII. 45

lia recentissimus quisque servorum et conservis ludibrio est;
sic, in hoc orbis terrarum vetere famulatu, novi nos et vilcs
in excidium petimur. Neque enim arva nobis, aut metalla,
aut portus sunt, quibus exercendis reservemur. Virtus por~
ro acferocia subjectorum ingrata imperantibus : et longin-
quitas ac secretum/ ipsum quo tzituis, eo suspectius. Ita,
sublata spe Venice, tandem sumite animum, tarn quibus
salus, quam quibus gloria carissima est. Brigantes femina
duce exurere coloniam, expugnare castra, ac nisi felicitas in
socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuere : nos integri et in-
domiti, et libertatem non in pr essentia laturi, primo statim
congressu non ostendamus quos sibi Caledonia vivos sepo-
suerit ?

XXXII. An eandem Romanis in bello virtutem, quam
in pace lasciviam, adesse creditis ? Nostris illi discessioni-
bus ac discordiis clari, vitia hostium in gloriam exercitus
sui vertunt ; quern contr actum ex diver sissbnis gentibus, ut
secundce res tenent, ita adversce dissolvent ; nisi si Gallos
et Germanos et (pudet dictuj Britannorum plerosque, licet
dominationi alienee sanguinem commodent, diutius tamen
Tiostes quam servos, fide et affectu teneri putatis : metus et
terror est, infirma vincula caritatis; quee ubi removeris,
qui timere desierint, odisse incipient. Omnia victories in-
citamenta pro nobis sunt: nullee Romanos conjuges ac-
cendunt; nulli par entes fugam exprobraturi sunt ; aut nulla
pier is que p atria, aut alia est: paucos numero, circum trepi-
dos ignorantia, cesium ipsum ac ?nare et silvas, ignota om-
nia circumspectantes, clausos quodammodo ac vinctos dii
nobis tradiderunt. Ne terreat vanus aspectus et auri f vi-
gor atque argenti, quod neque tegit, neque vulnerat. In
ipsa Jiostium acie inveniemus nostras manus : agnoscent
Britanni suam causam : recordabuntur Galli priorem liber-
tatem : deserent illos ceteri Germani, tamquam nuper Usipii
reliquerunt. Nee quidquam ultra formidinis : vacua cas-
tella, senum colonies, inter male par entes et injuste impe-

46 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

rantes agra municipia et discordantia. Hie dux, hie ex-
ercitus : ibi tributa et metalla et ceterce servientium pcence ;
quas in externum perfierre, aut statim ulcisci in hoc campo
est. Proinde, ituri in aciem, et majores vestros et posteros
cogitate.

XXXIII. Excepere orationem alacres et barbari moris
cantu et fremitu clamoribusque dissonis. Jamque agmi-
na,et armorum fulgores audentissimi cujusque procursu :
Bimul instruebatur acies ; cum Agricola, quamquam laetum
et vix munimentis coercitum militem adhortatus, it a dis-
seruit : Octavus annus est, commilitones, ex quo virtute et
auspiciis imperii Romani fide atque opera vestra Britan-
niam vicistis. Tot expeditionibus, tot prodiis, seu fiortitu-
dine adversus hostes, seu patientia ac labore pcene adversus
ipsam rerum naturam opusfuit. Neque me militum, neque
vos ducis pcenituit. Ergo egressi, ego veterum legatorum,
vos priorum exercituum terminos, finem Britannice, non
fama, nee rumore, sed castris et armis tenemus. Inventa
Britannia, et subacta. Equidem scepe in agmine, cum vos
paludes montesve et flumina fatigarent, fortissimi cujusque
voces audiebam, Quando dabitur hostis, quando acies ?
Veniunt, e latebris suis extrusi; et vota virtusque in aperto,
omniaque prona victoribus, atque eadem victis adversa.
Nam, ut superasse tantum itineris, silvas evasisse, transiss*,
cestuaria, pulchrum ac decorum infrontem; ita fugientibus
periculosissima, quee hodie prosperrima sunt. Neque enim
nobis aut locorum eadem notitia aut commeatuum eadem
abundantia ; sed ?nanus et arma et in his omnia. Quod
ad me attinet, jam pridem mihi decretum est, neque cxerci-
tus, neque ducis terga tuta esse. Proinde et honesta mors
turpi vita potior ; et incolumitas ac decus eodem loco sita
sunt : nee inglorium finer it in ipso terrarum ac naturae fine
cecidisse.

XXXIV. Si nova gentes atque ignota acies constitisset,
aliorum exercituum exemplis vos hortarer: nunc vestra de-

AGRICOLA. CAP. XXXIV.-XXXVI. 47

cora recensete, vestros oculos interrogate. li sunt, quos
proximo anno, unam legionemfurto noctis aggressos, clamor e
debellastis : ii ceterorum Britannorum Jugacissimi, ideoque
tarn diu superstites. Quomodo silvas saltusque penetranti-
bus fortissimum quodque animal robore, pavida et inertia
ipso agminis sono pelluntur, sic acerrimi Britannorum jam
pridem ceciderunt: reliquus est numerus ignavorum et me-
tuentium, quos quod tandem invenistis, non restiterunt, sed
deprehensi sunt novissimi: ideo extremo metu corpora de-
jixere in his vestigiis, in quibus pulchram et spectabilem vie-
toriam ederetis. Transigite cum expeditionibus : imponite
quinquaginta annis magnum diem : approbate reipublicce
nunquam exercitui imputari potuisse aut moras belli aut
causas rebellandi. ,

XXXV. Et alloquente adhuc Agricola militum ardor
eminebat, et finem orationis ingens alacritas consecuta est,
statimque ad arma discursum. Instinctos ruentesque ita
disposuit, ut peditum auxilia, quae octo millia erant, me-
diam aciem firmarent, equitum tria millia cornibus affun-
derentur: legiones pro vallo stetere, ingens victoriae decus
citra Romanum sanguinem bellanti, et auxilium si pelle-
rentur. Britannorum acies, in speciem simul ac terrorem,
editioribus locis constiterat ita, ut primum agmen aequo,
ceteri per acclive jugum connexi velut insurgerent; media
campi covinarius et eques strepitu ac discursu complebat.
Turn Agricola, superante hostium multitudine, veritus ne
simul in frontem simul et latera suorum pugnaretur, di-
ductis ordinibus, quamquam porrectior acies futura erat,
et arcessendas plerique legiones admonebant, promtior in
spem et firmus adversis, dimisso equo pedes ante vexilla
constitit.

XXXVI. Ac primo congressu eminus certabatur : si-
mul constantia, simul arte Britanni, ingentibus gladiis et
brevibus cetris, missilia nostrorum vitare, vel' excutere,
atque ipsi magnam vim telorum superfundere ; donee

48 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

Agricola tres Batavorum cohortes ac Tungrorum duas co-
hortatus est, ut rem ad mucrones ac maims adducerent :
quod et ipsis vetustate militias exercitatum, et hostibus in-
habile, parva scuta et enormes gladios gerentibus : nam
Britannorum gladii sine mucrone complexum armorum,
et in arcto pugnam non tolerabant. Igitur, ut Batavi mis-
cere ictus, ferire umbonibus, ora fcedare, et stratis qui in
aequo obstiterant, erigere in colles aciem ccepere, ceterae
cohortes, aemulatione et impetu commixtae, proximos quos-
que caedere : ac plerique semineces aut integri festinatione
victorias relinquebantur. Interim equitum turmae fugere,
covinarii peditum se prcelio miscuere : et, quamquam re-
centem terror em intulerant, den sis tamen hostium agmini-
bus et inaequalibus locis haerebant ; minimeque equestris
ea pugnae facies erat, cum aegre diu stantes, simul equo-
rum corporibus impellerentur, ac saepe vagi currus, exter-
riti sine rectoribus equi, ut quern que formido tulerat,
transversos aut obvios incursabant.

XXXVII. Et Britanni, qui adhuc pugnae expertes
surama collium insederant, et paucitatem nostrorum vacui
spernebant, degredi paulatim et circumire terga vincen-
tium coeperant; ni id ipsum veritus Agricola quattuor
equitum alas, ad subita belli retentas, venientibus opposu-
isset, quantoque ferocius accurrerant, tanto acrius pulsos
in fugam disjecisset. Ita consilium Britannorum in ipsos
versum; transvectaeque praecepto ducis a fronte pugnan-
tium alae, aversam hostium aciem invasere. Turn vero
patentibus locis grande et atrox spectaculum : sequi, vul-
nerare, capere, atque eosdem, oblatis aliis, trucidare.
Jam hostium, prout cuique ingenium erat, catervae arma-
torum paucioribus terga praestare, quidam inermes ultro
ruere, ac se morti offerre. Passim arma et corpora et
laceri artus et cruenta humus. Est aliquando etiamvictia
ira virtusque : postquam silvis appropinquarunt, collecti
primos sequentium, incautos et locorum ignaros, circum-

AGRICOLiE VITA. CAP. XXXVII.-XXXIX. 49

veniebant. Quodni frequens ubique Agricola validas et
expeditas cohortes, indaginis modo, et, sicubi arctiora
erant, partem equitum, dimissis equis, simul rariores silvas
equitem persultare jussisset, acceptum aliquod vulnus per
nimiara fiduciam foret. Ceterum, ubi compositos firmis
ordinibus sequi rursus videre, in fugam versi, non agmini-
bus ut prius, nee alius alium respectantes, rari et vitabundi
invicem longinqua atque avia petiere. Finis sequendi
nox et satietas fuit. Caesa hostium ad decern millia: nos-
trorum trecenti sexaginta cecidere, in quis Aulus Atticus,
praefectus cohortis, juvenili ardore et ferocia equi hostibus
ill at us.

XXXVIII. Et nox quidem gaudio praedaque laeta vic-
toribus : Britanni palantes, mixtoque virorum raulierumque
ploratu, trahere vulneratos, vocare integros, deserere do-
mos ac per iram ultro incendere ; eligere latebras et sta-
tim relinquere ; miscere invicem consilia aliqua, dein
separare ; aliquando frangi aspectu pignorum suorum,
saspius concitari : satisque constabat, saevisse quosdam in
conjuges ac liberos, tamquam misererentur. Proximus
dies faciem victoriae latius aperuit : vastum ubique silen-
tium, secreti colles, fumantia procul tecta, nemo explora-
toribus obvius : quibus in omnem partem dimissis, ubi
incerta fugae vestigia neque usquam conglobari hostes
compertum, et exacta jam asstate spargi bellum nequibat,
in fines Horestorum exercitum deducit. Ibi acceptis ob-
sidibus, praefecto classis circumvelii Britanniam praecepit:
datae ad id vires, et praecesserat terror : ipse peditem
atque equites lento itinere, quo novarum gentium animi
ipsa transitus mora terrerentur, in hibernis locavit. Et
simul classis secunda tempestate ac fama Trutulensem
portum tenuit, unde proximo latere Britanniae lecto omni
redierat.

XXXIX. Hunc rerum cursum, quamquam nulla verbo-
rum jactantia epistolis Agricolae auctum, ut Domitiano

50 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS,

moris erat, fronte Isetus, pectore anxius excepit. Inerat
conscientia, derisui fuisse nuper falsum e Germania tri-
umphum, emtis per commercia, quorum habitus et crines
in captivorum speciem formarentur : at nunc veram mag-
namque victoriam, tot millibus hostium caesis, ingenti fama
celebrari. Id sibi maxime formidolosum, privati hominis
nomen supra principis attolli : frustra studiafori et civilium
artium decus in silentium acta, si militarem gloriam alius
occuparet : et cetera utcunque facilius dissimulari, ducis
bcni imperatoriam virtutem esse. Talibus curis exercitus,
quodque saevae cogitationis indicium erat, secreto suo
satiatus, optimum in praesentia statuit reponere odium,
donee impetus famae et favor exercitus languesceret : nam
etiam turn Agricola Britanniam obtinebat.

XL. Igitur triumplialia ornamenta et illustris statuce
lionorem et quidquid pro triumplio datur, multo verborum
honore cumulata,decerni in senatu jubet: additque insuper
opinionem, Syriam provinciam Agricolae destinari, vacuam
turn morte Atilii Rufi, consularis, et majoribus reservatam.
Credidere plerique, libertum ex secretioribus ministeriis
missum ad Agricolam, codicillos, quibus ei Syria dabatur,
tulisse, cum praecepto, ut, si in Britannia foret, traderen-
tur ; eumque libertum in ipso freto oceani obvium Agri-
colae, ne appellato quidem eo, ad Domitianum remeasse;
sive verum istud, sive ex ingenio principis fictum ac com-
positum est. Tradiderat interim Agricola successori suo
provinciam quietam tutamque. Ac, ne notabilis celebri-
tate et frequentia occurrentium introitus esset, vitato
amicorum officio, noctu in urbem, noctu in palatium, ita
ut praeceptum erat, venit : exceptusque brevi osculo, et
nullo sermone, turbae servientium immixtus est. Ceterum,
ut militare nomen, grave inter otiosos, aliis virtutibus
temperaret, tranquillitatem atque otium penitus auxit,
cultu modicus, sermone facilis, uno aut altero amicorum
comitatus : adeo ut plerique, quibus magnos viros per*

AGRICOLA VITA. CAP. XL.-XLII. 51

ambitionem aestimare mos est, viso aspectoque Agricola
quaererent famam pauci interpretarentur.

XLI. Crebro per eos dies apud Domitianum absens
accusatus, absens absolutus est : causa periculi non crimen
ullum, aut querela laesi cujusquam, sed infensus virtutibus
princeps, et gloria viri, ac pessimum inimicorum genus,
laudantes. Et ea insecuta sunt reipublicae tempora, quae
Bileri Agricolam non sinerent ; tot exercitus in Moesia
Daciaque, Germania et Pannonia, temeritate aut per ig-
uaviam ducum amissi : tot militares viri cum tot cohortibus
expugnati et capti; nee jam de limite imperii et ripa, sed
de hibernis legionum et possessione dubitatum. Ita, cum
damna damnis continuarentur, atque omnis annus funeribus
et cladibus msigniretur, poscebatur ore vulgi dux Agri-
cola : comparantibus cunctis vigorem, constantiam, et ex-
pertum bellis animum cum inertia et formidine reorum.
Quibus sermonibus satis constat Domitiani quoque aures
verberatas, dum optimus quisque libertorum amore et
fide, pessimi malignitate et livore, pronum deterioribus
principem exstimulabant. Sic Agricola simul suis vir-
tutibus, simul vitiis aliorum, in ipsam gloriam praeceps
agebatur.

XLII. Aderat jam annus, quo proconsulatum Asiae et
Africae sortiretur; et occiso Civica nuper, nee Agricolae
consilium deerat, nee Domitiano exemplum. Accessere
quidam cogitationum principis periti, qui, iturusne esset
in provinciam, ultro Agricolam interrogarent : ac primo
occultius quietem et otium laudare, mox operam suam in
approbanda excusatione offerre : postremo non jam ob-
scuri, suadentes simul terrentesque, pertraxere ad Domi-
tianum. Qui paratus simulatione, in arrogantiam compo-
situs, et audiit preces excusantis, et, cum adnuisset, agi
£ibi gratias passus est: nee erubuit beneficii invidia. Sa-
larium tamen, proconsulari solitum offerri, et quibusdam a
se ipso concessum, Agricolae non dedit : sive offensus non

52 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

petitum, sive ex conscientia, ne, quod vetuerat, videretur
emisse. Proprium humani ingenii est, odisse quem laese-
ris : Domitiani vero natura praeceps in iram, et, quo ob-
scurior, eo irrevocabilior, moderatione tamen prudentia-
que Agricolae leniebatur : quia non contumacia neque
inani jactatione libertatis, famam fatumque provocabat.
Sciant, quibus moris est, illicita mirari, posse etiam sub
raalis principibus magnos viros esse: obsequiumque ac
modestiam, si industria ac vigor adsint, eo laudis excedere,
quo plerique per abrupta, sed in nullum reipublicae usum,
ambitiosa morte inclaruerunt.

XLIII. Finis vitae ejus nobis luctuosus, amicis tristis,
extraneis etiam ignotisque non sine cura fuit. Vulgus
quoque, et hie aliud agens populus, et ventitavere ad do-
mum, et per fora et circulos locuti sunt : nee quisquam,
audita morte Agricolae, aut laetatus est aut statim oblitus
est. Augebat miserationem constans rumor, veneno inter-
cejptum. Nobis nihil comperti afhrmare ausim : ceterum
per omnem valetudinem ejus, crebrius quam ex more
principatus per nuntios visentis, et libertorum primi et
medicorum intimi venere ; sive cura illud, sive inquisitio
erat. Supremo quidem die, momenta deficientis per dis-
positos cursores nuntiata constabat, nullo credente, sic ac-
celerari quae tristis audiret. Speciem tamen doloris animo
vultuque prae se tulit, securus jam odii, et qui facilius dis-
simularet gaudium quam metum. Satis constabat, lecto
testamento Agricolae, quo coheredem optimae uxori et
piissimae filiae Domitianum scripsit, laetatum eum velut ho-
nore judicioque : tarn caeca et corrupta mens assiduis adu-
lationibus erat, ut nesciret a bono patre non scribi here-
dem nisi malum principem.

XLIV. Natus erat Agricola Caio Caesare primum Con-
sule Idibus Juniis : excessit sexto et quinquagesimo an-
no, decimo Kalendas Septembris Collega Priscoque con-
sulibus. Quodsi habitum quoque ejus posteri noscere

AGRICOL.E VITA. CAP. XLIV.-XLV. 53

velmt ; decentior quam sublimior fuit : nihil metus in
vultu ; gratia oris supererat : bonum virum facile crede-
res, magnum libenter. Et ipse quidem, quamquam me-
dio in spatio integrae aetatis ereptus, quantum ad gloriam
longissimum aevum peregit. Quippe et vera bona, quae
in virtutibus sita sunt, impleverat, et consularibus ac tri-
umphalibus ornamentis praedito, quid aliud adstruere for-
tuna poterat ] Opibus nimiis non gaudebat ; speciosae
contigerant : filia atque uxore superstitibus, potest videri
etiam beatus, incolumi dignitate, florente fama, salvis
affinitatibus et amicitiis, futura efFugisse. Nam, sicuti
durare in hac beatissimi saeculi luce, ac principem Traja-
num videre, augurio votisque apud nostras aures omina-
batur, ita festinatae mortis grande solatium tulit, eva-
sisse postremum illud tempus, quo Domitianus, non jam
per intervalla ac spiramenta temporum, sed continuo et
velut uno uAu, rempublicam exbausit.

XL V. Non vidit Agricola obsessam curiam, et clausum
armis senatum, et eadem strage tot consularium caedes,
tot nobilissimarum feminarum exsilia et fugas. Una ad-
huc victoria Carus Metius censebatur, et intra Albanam
arcem sententia Messalini strepebat, et MassaBebius jam
turn reus erat. Mox nostras duxere Helvidium in carce-
rem manus : nos Maurici Rusticique visus, nos innocenti
sanguine Senecio perfudit. Nero tamen subtraxit oculos,
jussitque scelera, non spectavit : praacipua sub Domitiano
miseriarum pars erat, videre et adspici, cum suspiria nostra
subscriberentur, cum denotandis tot hominum palloribus
sufficeret saevus ille vultus et rubor, quo se contra pudorem
muniebat. Tu vero felix, Agricola, non vitae tantum
claritate, sed etiam opportunitate mortis. Ut perhibent,
qui interfuerunt novissimis sermonibus tuis, constans et
libens fatum excepisti ; tamquam pro virili portione inno-
centiam principi donares. Sed mihi filiaeque, praeter
acerbitatem parentis erepti, auget mcestitiam, quod assi-

54 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS.

dere valetudini, fovere deficientem, satiari vultu, com-
plexu, non contigit. Excepissemus certe mandata voces*
que, quas penitus animo figeremus. Noster hie dolor,
nostrum vulnus ; nobis tarn longae absentiae conditione
ante quadriennium amissus es. Omnia sine dubio, optime
parentum, assidente amantissima uxore, superfuere honori
tuo : paucioribus tamen lacrimis compositus es, et novis-
sima in luce desideravere aliquid oculi tui.

XL VI. Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus
placet, non cum corpore exstinguuntur magnae animae,
placide quiescas, nosque, domum tuam, ab infirmo desi-
derio et muliebribus lamentis ad contemplationem virtu-
tum tuarum voces, quas neque lugeri neque plangi fas
est : admiratione te potius, et immortalibus laudibus, et,
si natura suppeditet, semulatu decoremus. Is verus honos,
ea conjunctissimi cuj usque pietas. Id filiae quoque uxori-
que praeceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam venerari,
ut omnia facta dictaque ejus secum revolvant, famamque
ac figuram animi magis quam corporis complectantur :
non quia intercedendum putem imaginibus, quae marmore
aut aere fmguntur ; sed ut vultus hominum, ita simulacra
vultus imbecilla ac mortalia sunt, forma mentis aeterna;
quam tenere et exprimere, non per alienam materiam et
artem, sed tuis ipse moribus possis. Quidquid ex Agri-
cola amavimus, quidquid mirati sumus, manet mansu-
rumque est in animis hominum, in aeternitate temporum,
fama rerum. Nam multos veterum, velut inglorios et
ignobiles, oblivio obruet : Agricola, posteritati narratus et
traditus, superstes erit.

NOTES.

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.

CHAPTER I.

Germania omnis. Observe that omnis is here placed after Ger-
mania, because the emphasis falls upon the noun, and the adjective
is appended to show in what sense the noun is to be taken, namely
as referring to Germany Proper, called, also, Germania Transrhena-
71a, to distinguish it from Germania Cisrhenana. (Consult Geograph.
Index, s. v. Germani.)

Ratisque et Pannoniis. "We have two conjunctions here, because
the Raeti and Pannonii were more closely connected with one an-
other than with the Galli. (Compare c. 3, 7, 28, 34.) As regards
the Raeti and Pannonii, consult Geographical Index. We have
written Rcetis in the text, as more correct than Rhatis, just as Ratio.
is more correct than Rhcetia, a result well established by the lan-
guage of ancient inscriptions. (Consult Drakenb. ad Liv., v., 33 ;
Oudend. ad Suet., Aug., 21 ; Niebuhr, Rom. Gesch., vol. i., p. 118;
Muller, Etrusk., vol. i., p. 162; Orelli, Inscr. hat., n. 491.)

Sarmatis Dacisque. Consult Geographical Index. The European
Sarmatians here meant were the Slavonians of a more recent age.

Mutuo metu, aut montibus. " By mutual fear, or by mountains,"
i. e., they were either separated from one another by wide interven-
ing districts of waste land, left purposely uncultivated and deso-
late, in order to check the inroads of one another, or else by mount-
ains. The mountains meant are the Carpathian and Bohemian
mountains. Observe here the peculiar employment of metu and
montibus, things of an entirely different nature, in connection with
one another ; and consult Botticher's remarks on the style of Taci-
tus, appended to this volume, p. xlii.

Cetera. "The rest of the country. ' ' Supply loca. The reference
is to the northern and western parts.

Latos sinus, et insularum, &c. " Embracing broad projections of
land, and islands of vast size." Literally, " vast spaces of islands,"
an instance of the poetical complexion of the style of Tacitus.
(Consult Botticher, Remarks, &c, p. liv.) The Greeks and Romans
looked upon that part of Europe north of Germany as composed of

5S NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. I.

islands, not as forming parts of the continent. These so-called
islands, therefore, would correspond to the modern Denmark, Nor-
way, and Sweden.

Sinus. Erroneously rendered by some " bays." This term is
applied to any thing that makes a bend, and is most frequently
used of any thing which is hollow, as a valley, a gulf; but it also
means a promontory, or a neck of land, where the boundary line
makes a bend or sweep, and such is its force in the present passage ;
and the allusion appears to be to the bold projections of the German
coast along the Ocean and the Baltic, more particularly to what is
now denominated Jutland, and to the headlands near the mouths
of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe. (Compare Passow, Walther,
and Gerlach, ad loc., and Voss, ad Virg., Georg., ii., 123.

Quos helium aperuit. " Whom war has disclosed to our view."
By helium is here meant a series of warlike expeditions. The
knowledge which the Romans possessed of Germany and the west-
ern parts of Europe was derived principally from the expeditions
of Caesar, Drusus Germanicus, Germanicus, and Ahenobarbus.
(Consult Geograph. Index, 5. v. Germani.)

Rhenus Rceticarum Allium, &c. The Rhine rose, according to
Strabo (iv., 5) and Ptolemy (ii., 12), in Mount Adula, a name given
to a collection of summits answering at the present day to a part
of the Lepontine Alps. The sources of the Rhine are in this part
of the Alps, a little to the east of Mount St. Gothard, in the country
of the Grisons.

Modico flexu in Occidentem versus. " After having turned by a
moderate bending toward the west." Observe here the middle
meaning to be assigned to versus, and compare note on nee obligan-
tur, c. 21. It is better to make versus a participle here, than to con-
sider it, as some do, a preposition used pleonastically. Ernesti and
Brotier, indeed, adopt this latter opinion, but without much propriety,
since Tacitus nowhere else employs such a pleonasm as in ... .
versus, or ad ... . versus. The reference in the text is to the bend
of the Rhine near Arenacum, the modern Arnheim, in the Grand
Duchy of Baden, not very far from the mouth of the stream. Bek-
ker, Ruperti, and others erroneously suppose another bend of the
Rhine to be meant, near Basilea, the modern Basel, or Bale. (Com-
pare Dilthey, ad loc.)

Miscetur. " Mingles itself." Observe that miscetur here must
be regarded rather as a middle than a passive verb. (Compare note
on versus, immediately preceding.)

Molli et clementer edito, &c. " From the easy and gently-elevated

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. I., II. 59

summit of Mount Abnoba." The MSS. have Arnoba, Arlonce, &c
The true reading is Abnoba, which was first given as a conjecture
by Hermolaus Barbarus, and subsequently confirmed by two inscrip-
tions found in this quarter. Mount Abnoba answers to the northern
part of the Black Forest, opposite the town of Augusta Rauracorum,
now i«^^. (Compare Gerbert, Hist. S. N. T., iii., 1, 7; ii., 243;
and Seebode, N. Arch., 1826, vol. i., p. 153.)

Plures populos adit. On the right bank, the Vindelici, Norici, Pan-
nonii, Illyrii, Mcesi ; on the left bank, the Hermunduri, Narisci, Mar-
comanni, Quadi, Daci, Getae, and Bastarnae. {Dilthey, ad loc.)

Sex meatibus. " By six channels." The number of mouths ap-
pertaining to this stream is differently given by the ancient writers.
Herodotus (iv., 7), Dionysius Periegetes, Arrian, Claudian, Eusta-
thius, and others name five. Pliny (H. N., iv., 24) and some other
authorities give six. Strabo, Ovid, Mela, Solinus, and Ammianus
Marcellinus make seven. Tacitus appears to unite the two latter
accounts. At the present day the Danube enters the sea by seven
mouths.

Erumpat. A better reading than erumpit, and sanctioned by the
best MSS. Passow makes a singular error, when he asserts, in his
comments on the present passage, and in defence of erumpit, that
donee with the subjunctive is contrary to the practice of Tacitus.
The true distinction appears to be this : donee with the indicative
refers to an actual fact, or a thing that is now actually taking place ;
but donee with the subjunctive indicates something that is to be re-
alized, but has not yet actually occurred. (Compare Walther, ad
Ann., ii., 6.)

CHAPTER II.

Ipsos Germanos, &c. " The Germans themselves I, for my part,
believe to be an indigenous race." The pronoun ipsos here marks
the transition from the subject of the country to that of the people
dwelling therein. Observe, moreover, that the perfect subjunctive
is here employed to soften an assertion, investing it with an air of
modest reserve. (Zumpt, § 527.) — Indigenas. Equivalent to the
Greek avroxBovac. This belief in the indigenous origin of different
races was very common among the Greeks and Romans, though
now deservedly rejected. The ancestors of the German race mi-
grated by land from Asia, and form one of the links in the Indo-
European chain of nations. (Compare Geograph. Index, s. v. Ger-
mania.)

60 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. II.

Minimeque aliarum gentium, &c. " And by no means mixed up
through immigrations of other communities and the visits of stran-
gers," i. e., free from all intermixture with foreigners, either as set-
tlers or casual visitants. Observe here the employment of abstract
nouns (adventibus, hospitiis) in the plural, to express the recurrence
of an act, or its taking place on several occasions. This usage is
very frequent in Tacitus. (Compare Roth, ad Agric, §4> P- m> seq. >
Voss., Aristarch., iii., 40, and Fortsch., ad loc.)

Nee .... et. Equivalent to et non . . . . et. This is of frequent oc-
currence. So neque . . . . et (Annal, ii., 51 ; xv., 28), and neque ....
ac (Agric, 10). So in Greek we have ovre . . . . rk, and fiiJTe ....
re. (Compare Kuhner, § 775, 3, a.)

Advehebantur. " Were carried to their places of destination."
Observe that advehi properly refers to transportation in ships ; here,
however, it is made to apply also to movements by land. Compare
Walther, ad Ann., ii., 20.

Utque sic dixerim, adversus Oceanus. " And, so to express myself,
up-hill Ocean." The ancients had a notion that this part of the
world was higher than the rest ; so that, in sailing to it, they had to
go as it were up-hill. Compare Hist., ii., 98 ; and Pliny, H. N., ii.,
70: "In alia adverso, in alia prone mari." Tacitus prefixes the
words utque sic dixerim as a kind of apology for the employment here
of so unusual an epithet, and this alone would show that the ordi-
nary meaning of adversus, namely, "hostile," or "opposing," can
not be intended in the present case.

Ab orbe nostro. " From our part of the world." The allusion is
to the countries around the Mediterranean, and forming part of the
Roman empire. Hence, immediately after, when Asia and Africa
are mentioned, we must suppose Asia Minor and Northern Africa to
be meant, the fertility of which regions is praised by many of the
ancient writers. (Compare Cic, pro Leg. Man., 6 ; Tac, Agric, 6 ;
Plin., H. N, xxxvii., 13 ; Virg., Georg., ii., 136, seqq.)

Informem terris, &c. "Rugged in surface, rigorous in climate,
cheerless (alike) to be cultivated and to be beheld," i. e., cheerless
alike to the cultivator and the mere beholder. No writer uses the
supine more frequently than Tacitus, both in the accusative and ab-
lative, for the sake of brevity. (Compare Botticher, Remarks, &c,
p. xli.

Nisi si patria sit. " Unless, if (chance so will it) it be his native
land," i. e., unless, perchance, it be, &c. Observe, that in the form
of expression nisi si, which frequently occurs, the conjunction si
is used elliptically, and the ellipsis must be supplied, in each case,

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. II. 61

according to the nature of the context. The phrase is employed to
denote mere possibility, without any definite assertion. (Compare
Walther, ad Ann., h\, 63 ; Hand, ad Tursell., vol. iv., p. 239.)

Tuisconem deum. It was customary with almost all ancient com-
munities, in their national songs, to trace their pedigree to some
god or deified hero. The name Tuisco is very probably connected
with that of Teutones, which occurs in various forms ; as Theutisci,
Theotisci, Tuitschi, and, in the old dialects of Germany, Teut, Tuit,
Thiuda ; in the Belgic, Duitsche, Duiske. (Compare Grimm, Deutsche
Gramm. Einleit., p. 13, seq. ; and consult Geograph. Index, s. v.
Teutones.)

Mannum. Mannus, the son of Tuisco, is merely a personification
of the German man (mann), or race, and the three sons of Mannus
are the three main geographical divisions of this race.

Ligcevones. The Ingaevones, who are here described as dwelling
on the Ocean, are "the inhabitants of the inner coasts," i. e., the
Inbewohner ; and, in like manner, the Istaevones, whom Pliny (H. N.,
iv., 14) speaks of as being "proximi Rheno" are " the inhabitants of
the western parts," i. e., the Westbewohner. If this etymology be
correct, the penults of both names ought to be regarded as long.
(Compare Mannert, Geogr., vol. iii., p. 145, seqq.) As regards the
appellation Herminones, it is probable that it contains the root of the
national name Germani, namely, Herm-, or Gherm- (i. e., Hermin-
ones, Gher man-ones), if we suppose, as many now do, that this
name is of Oriental origin. (Compare the remarks of Von Hammer,
Wien. Jdhrb., vol. ii., p. 319 ; and vol. ix., p. 39.) According to this
explanation, the Herminones will be the main or parent stem occu-
pying the central parts of the country. A less correct reading is
Hermiones.

Licentia xetustatis. " Through the (usual) license of antiquity,"
i. e., availing themselves of the license which so remote a period
affords for hazarding bold speculations.

Plures deo ortos. With deo supply illo, the reference being to
Tuisco. — Marsos, Gambrivios, &c. (Consult Geographical Index.)
The MSS. vary with regard to the name Gambrivios. The true
reading probably is Marsos, Sigambros. (Consult Walther, ad loc.)

Ceterum Germanics vocabulum, &c. " That the name of ' Ger-
many,' however, is of ancient origin, and lately added," i. e., is a
comparatively modern addition. According to the account here
cited by Tacitus, the name Germani is the Latinized form of the ap-
pellation assumed by the Tungri, the first German tribe that crossed
the Rhine ; and they gave themselves this name in order to strike

62 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. II., III.

terror into their Gallic opponents. Various etymologies have been
given of the term, but all more or less unsatisfactory. The one
most commonly received derives the name in question from the
old German word Werr, " war," and Mann, " a man," so that Ger-
mani (i. e., Werrmanner) will signify " war-men," or " warriors," the
Roman alphabet, in consequence of its not having any w, converting
this letter into a g. Compare, however, the remarks of Graf, Alt-
hochd. Sprachsch., vol. iv., col. 260, seq. ; and consult Geograph. In-
dex, where other etymologies, and especially the Oriental one, are
given.

Quoniam qui primi Rhenum, &c. " Since they who, having first
crossed the Rhine, drove out the Gauls, and are now called Tungri,
were then called Germani," i. e., called themselves Germani. After
Tungri supply vocentur. Observe, moreover, the employment of
the subjunctive in this and the succeeding sentence, because the
writer is giving the assertion of others, not his own sentiments.
(Zumpt, § 545.) — Ita nationis nomen, &c. " So widely (they affirm)
did the name of a particular tribe, not of the whole race, by degrees
extend itself, that all called themselves Germani, by an appellation
assumed in the first instance by the conquering tribe, in order to in-
spire terror, (and) subsequently adopted by themselves." Observe
here the zeugma in invento. The Bipont edition, with that of Oberli-
nus, &c, has ita nationis nomen in nomen gentis, while others for non
gentis read in gentis, the conjecture of Acidalius. The reading which
we have adopted, however, is that of all the MSS. and early editions.

CHAPTER III.

Fuisse apud eos et Herculem mentor ant. " They relate that there
was a Hercules also among them." By Hercules is merely meant
a mythic personification of valor and manliness. In this sense al-
most every ancient nation had its Hercules. — Memorant. The ref-
erence is not to the Germans speaking of themselves, as the words
apud eos plainly show, but to the account given of them by others.
— Primum. " As the first," i. e., the most pre-eminent. Equivalent
to principem.

Quorum relatu. " By the chanting of which." More literally,
" by the recital of which." Tacitus purposely employs the term re-
latu here, to indicate that the carmina were actual narratives of il-
lustrious exploits. — Quern baritum vocant. ''Which they call bari
tus." This term is supposed to be formed from the old German

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. III. 63

bar en, " to shout," -itus being a mere Latin ending. (Adelung,
Gesch. Alt. DeutschL, p. 388.) Another, but erroneous form of the
word, is barritus, retained in the Glossary of Ducange, ed. Henschel,
p. 607, but very properly condemned by Freund (Worterb., s. v.)
This last-mentioned writer, moreover, is of opinion that Tacitus
here erroneously gives the name of the war-cry for that of the wTar-
song. Several MSS. and editions read barditum, but there is no au-
thority to show that bards, as such, existed among the Germans.
They formed rather a Celtic caste or order. (Compare Veget., iii.,
18 ; Amm. Marcell., xvi., 30; xxvi., 7.)

Terrent enim trepidantve, &c. " For they cause terror, or tremble
themselves with alarm, according as the line of battle has sounded
forth (the strain)." Passow places a comma after sonuit, and makes
acics the nominative plural, and the subject of terrent and trepidant.
But the construction sonuit acies is confirmed by Hist., iv., 18, "ut
virorum cantu, feminarum ululatu sonuit acies. "-^Nec tarn vocis Me,
quam virtutis, &c. " Nor does that appear so much a chorus of hu-
man voices as the combined cry of valor itself." The meaning is,
that a person, on hearing this martial strain, would think he heard,
not a chorus of human voices, but the valor that animates the bosom
of each, expressing itself in one combined and prolonged cry. ( Wal-
ther, ad loc.)

Fr actum murmur. " A broken roar." The term murmur is not
unfrequently employed to denote a low, sullen roar, like that of the
sea, thunder, an earthquake, &c. (Compare Freund, Worterb., s. v.)
-Quo plenior et gravior, &c. " In order that the voice may swell
forth fuller and mora sonorous, in consequence of the repercussion."

Quidam opinantur, &c. Among these, Strabo (iii., p. 149) con-
tends that Ulysses advanced beyond Tartessus, and founded 'Odvcr-
ceia (" Olisippo," Lisbon), and Solinus (c. 26, 36) makes him touch
at Britain. Still more extravagant are the speculations of some
modern writers, who find a resemblance between the Ulyssean ap-
pellation Utis and that of Odin ! (Compare Bilthey, ad loc.) — Longo
Mo ctfdbuloso error e. " During those long and much- fabled wander-
ings of his." Observe that fabuloso is here equivalent to " infabulis
celebrato." The allusion is to the Homeric and post-Homeric le-
gends respecting the wanderings of Ulysses on his return from Troy.

Asciburgium. Mannert, following Ptolemy, makes this place to
have been situate on the right bank of the Rhine, wThere the canal
of Drusus joined the Yssel, and where the modern Dosburg lies. It
seems more correct, however, to make it correspond to Asburg, or
the neighboring hamlet of Essenberg, on the left bank of the river,

64 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. III., IV.

as Cluver, Reichard, and Wilhelm (p. 114, 154) have done. The j
name Asciburgium is derived by some from the old German term
ask, " a vessel," " a ship," and berg or burg, whence it is supposed
to be equivalent to Schiffburg. (Compare the Anglo-Saxon asc, and
the old Northern ascho, and consult Ruhs, p. 141, and Graff, Althochd.
Sprachsch., vol. i., col. 492.) Others, however, connect the name
Asciburgium with the legend of Odin and the Asi.

Nominatumque. After this word is found in most MSS. and early-
editions a Greek name more or less corrupted, namely, 'Aarvredytov,
or 'AarvTrvpyLov, or 'Acrtcurvpyiov, &e. It is evidently a mere inter-
polation. Consult Gerlach, ad loc. — Ulixi consecratam. "Conse-
crated by Ulysses." Observe that Ulixi is here the dative, by a
Hellenism, for ab Ulixe. (Compare Vechner, Hellenolex., p. 322, ed.
Heusing.) Some regard Ulixi as the regular dative, and translate
" consecrated to Ulysses ;" this, however, would be entirely at vari-
ance with the custom of the northern nations. {Gerlach, ad loc.) —
Adjecto Laertce patris nomine. The meaning is, that on the pre-
tended altar, after the name of Ulysses, was inscribed " Son of Laer-
tes," according to the Grecian custom, and in order that no doubt
might exist with regard to the erector.

Greeds litteris inscriptos. This, like the story about the altar,
must be regarded as a mere fable. We find, however, the Gauls
acquainted with Grecian characters, which they seem to have
learned from the Phocaeans who colonized Massilia. (Compare
Gas., B. G., i., 29 ; v., 48 ; vi., 14.)

Ex ingenio suo quisque, &c. " Let each one refuse or give credit
thereto, according to his turn of mind." Literally, "take away or
add credence." — Ex ingenio. If credulous, let him believe the story ;
jf skeptical, let him withhold his assent.

CHAPTER IV.

Infectos. " Changed." The verbs inficere, vitiare, corrumpere,
like [uaivetv, juo?ivvetv, ydeipeiv, &c., do not always imply a change
for the worse, but often a mere blending, or an alteration of the
primitive state of any thing. (Passow, ad loc.) — Propriam et since*
ram, &c. " Have ever existed as a peculiar and unmixed race, and
like only unto themselves." The adjective similis takes the genitive
when an internal resemblance, or a resemblance in character and
disposition, is to be expressed, but the dative when it is merely an
external one. {Zumpt, § 411.)

Habitus corporum. "The conformation of their frames," t. e..

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. IV., V. 65

their physical characteristics. — Truces et cozrulei oculi. " Eyes fierce
of expression and of a light blue color." It is principally in Hesse,
Westphalia, Pomerania, Hanover, Thuringia, and Bavaria, that we
find traces at the present day of the physical characteristics which
Tacitus here ascribes to the ancient German race. On the other
hand, the communities that inhabit Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, a part
of Upper Saxony, and Austria, display in their physical conforma-
tion the marks of a blending with the Slavonic race. — Rutila coma.
" Ruddy locks," i. e., of a yellowish red, or flame-colored. The
Germans and Gauls frequently used artificial means to make their
hair of a ruddy or flame color. (Compare Hist., iv., 61, and Strabo,
vii., p. 290.)

Magna corpora. The large stature of the ancient Germans is fre-
quently referred to by the ancient writers. Compare, also, chapter
xx. of the present treatise. — Et tantum ad impetum valida. "And
powerful only for the first onset," i. e., the first shock of the conflict.
(Compare Seneca, de Ira, i., 11: " Germanis quid est animosiusl
quid ad incursum acrius ?w) — Laboris atque operum non eadem patientia.
" There is not the same patient endurance of labor and prolonged
exertions." Some commentators regard laboris atque operum as a
hendiadys, but incorrectly, since the form of expression is purposely
employed here to impart more force to the clause.

Ccelo solove. The particles ve and vel have always a disjunctive
force. Here coelo is to be referred to frigora, and solo to inediamf
which could not be the case if ve were equivalent to que. Translate,
" Cold and hunger they are accustomed to endure by their climate
and soil." (Compare Passow, ad he.)

CHAPTER V.

Etsi aliquanto specie differt. " Although it varies considerably in
aspect." Literally, " although it differs (from itself)." Observe
that differ o is here used absolutely. With regard to aliquanto, it may
be remarked, that aliquanto, aliquantum, and the other compounds
of ali, which refer to number or space, almost invariably imply great-
ness of some kind. (Ernesti, ad Suet. Cas., 80.) — In universum ta-
men, &c. " In general, however, is either rough with forests or de-
formed by marshes." Tacitus does not appear to have known much
of the interior of Germany ; although, it is true, numerous forests
were scattered over it, as the Silva Hercynia, Marciana, Gabreta,
Luna, Teutobergiensis, &c., traces of many of which still remain.
The marshes, of which he here speaks, refer principally to the coun-

66 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. V.

try of East Friesland, the coast of the German Ocean at the mouth
of the Ems and Weser, and to some parts of Westphalia and Lower
Saxony. These morasses are owing, in many cases, to the forests,
which hinder the drainage. (Compare the remarks of Wilhelm in
Kruse's Deutsche Alter thiimer, ii., 6, p. 63.)

Humidior, qua Gallias. " Moister where it faces the Gauls." Sup-
ply adspicit. The western part of Germany is meant, but more par-
ticularly the territories of the Batavi and Frisii, now Holland, Fries-
land, &c. The greater degree of humidity is owing to the forests,
rivers, lakes, and marshes in this quarter. — Ventosior, qua Noricum
et Pannoniam, &c. " More bleak where it looks toward Noricum
and Pannonia." Ancient Noricum and Pannonia comprehended
what is now Austria, Styria, Carinthia, part of Hungary, &c., so that
the portion of Germany here meant will be the southern and eastern
parts. It is more elevated and mountainous than the other parts
of the country, and hence more exposed to the winds.

Satis ferax. " Productive for grain," i. e., for things sown in it.
Observe that satis is here the dative plural of satus, and not the ad-
Verb, as some maintain. Observe, moreover, the difference of mean-
ing between satorum ferax and satis ferax; the former (which is the
more usual construction of ferax) means, " productive in grain," i. e.,
producing it in abundance ; but the latter, " productive for grain,"
i. e., well fitted to produce it. (Walther, ad loc.) Caesar speaks of
the fertility of the country around the Hercynian Forest (B. G., vi.,
24) ; Commodus laid the Marcomanni under a tribute of corn (Dio
Cass., xxii., 3) ; the cultivation of oats is mentioned by Pliny (H.
N., xviii., 44 ; compare xix., 26, 28, 42) ; and Tacitus himself speaks
of barley (c. 23).

Frugiferarum arborum fattens. " Kindly to fruit trees." The
ordinary text has impatiens, " unkindly," but this can not be correct,
since the contrary is asserted by Dio Cassius (xlix., 36), Strabo (iv.,
6, 8 ; vii., 5, 11), Pliny (H. N., xii., 3), and Tacitus himself (c. 10,
23, 26.) In the common reading the im might very easily have
arisen from the m preceding. We have adopted, therefore, patiens,
the conjecture of some editors. (Compare the remarks of Wilhelm,
p. 65, note.) — Sed plerumque inprocera. " But these, for the most
part, (are) small of size." The epithet inprocera is generally sup-
posed to be applied here, by a bold figure of speech, to the land itself
(terra), instead of the flocks (pecora) ; and Wolf (ad Ann., i., 10),
Passow, Hess, and others, have attempted to confirm this view by
citing what they .consider to be analogous passages in our author I
Hist., i., 49, 88; iii., 56; Ann., xv., 23, &c). These passages,

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. V. 67

however, do not apply to the present case ; and it is better, there-
fore, to make inprocera a neuter plural, as referring to pecora, with
an ellipsis of the copula sunt, so that the construction will be sed
inprocera (ilia sunt). This will save the necessity of our adopting,
with Bredowand Weikert, the conjectural reading of Lipsius, name-
ly, pleraque. (Compare Jacobs, and Dilthey, ad loc.)

Ne armentis quidem suus honor, &c. y Not even the herds have
their usual stateliness, or dignity of brow," i. e., not even the cattle
are as large as those in other lands, or supplied with horns of as
large and imposing a size. Tacitus means that the animals are
stunted by the severity of the climate. This, however, is an error.
Some of the quadrupeds of ancient Germany, the Urus (Auerochs),
for example, were remarkable for their size. The smallness of the
cattle must have been owing rather to want of care in feeding them,
in protecting them from the ordinary inclemencies of winter, and
in improving the breed by mixtures.

Propitii an irati dii negaverint, &e. Observe the quaintness and
brevity of the expression. The meaning is this : in Germany the
precious metals do not occur ; whether, however, the want of these
be an advantage or an evil, I leave for others to determine. — Nee
tamen adfirmaverim, &c. It is now well knowTn that Germany
abounds in these veins. The first was discovered in the reign of
Otho I.

Posses stone et usu haud perinde adficiuntur. " They are not affected
by the possession and use (of these) in the same way (as other na-
tions)," i. e., they do not desire the possession and use of them like
other nations. We must supply in sense ac aha nationes after haud
perinde. On perinde and proinde (which latter form some editors
adopt here), consult Zumpt, § 282, but more particularly Hand, ad
TurselL, vol. iv., p. 451. Some grammarians make haud perinde
here and elsewhere equivalent to haud magnopere ; incorrectly, how-
ever, since there is always in these words a latent comparison.
Boetticher falls into this error in his Lexicon to Tacitus. (Compare
Ruhnken, Prcef. ad Schell. Lex., p. 517, ed Friedem. — Roth, ad Tacit.,
Agric, 10. — Duker, ad Liv., xxiii., 21. — Hand, ad TurselL, vol. iv.,
p. 462.)

Est videre apud illos, &c. " One may see among them silver ves-
sels held in no higher estimation than those which are formed of
earth." Literally, "in no other cheapness." Observe here the
employment of est in the sense of licet (Zumpt, § 227), and compare
the corresponding Greek usage of tori for e^egtl. — Quamquam prox-
imi, ob usum commerciorum, &c. " Although those in our immediate

68 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. V., VI.

vicinity do hold gold and silver in estimation for convenience in
traffic," i. e., set a value on gold and silver for the purposes of trade.
— Agnoscunt atque eligunt. " Learn to know, and give the prefer-
ence to." Literally, "recognize (i. e., distinguish) and pick out."

Veterem et diu notam. The later silver money had been adulter-
ated. (Plin., H. N.j xxxiii., 3, 9.) — Serratos bigatosque. "Those
pieces, namely, that are notched at the edge, and those that bear
the impress of a two-horse chariot." Supply nummos. The pref-
erence of the Germans to certain forms of Roman money was
founded on their apprehension of being cheated with false coin. The
notched pieces would be a preventive against this, since they had
their edges cut like the teeth of a saw (serra), by which means it
could be seen whether the metal was the same quite through, or
was only plated. The pieces termed bigati were, on the other hand,
old coin of purer silver than the adulterated currency of the day.
The Germans, probably, had learned to notch the Roman money in
order to satisfy themselves that it was genuine, and so, in process
of time, the Romans were induced to mint denarii in that manner
for their use. Cautious, however, as they were, they found, in the
lapse of time, that they were deceived by the reliance which they
had placed on their favorite and rude criterion. The Roman for-
gers passed off upon them denarii of plated copper provided with
the proper indentations, and serrati of this description are still re-
maining. (Car dwell j Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks and Ro*
mans j p. 160.)

Sequuntur. " They seek after." (Compare Cic, de Off., i., 37;
Ccbs.j B. C.j i., 1, 3.) — Nulla adfectione animi, &c. "From no pre-
dilection (for that metal), but because the counting of silver pieces
is more convenient for them, carrying-on, as theyxlo, a promiscuous
and petty traffic." Observe that numerus is here equivalent to nu-
meratioj and that after argenteorum we must supply nummorum.

CHAPTER VI.

Superest. "Abounds." Literally, "is over and above (their ac-
tual wants)." Compare Hist., i., 51, 83 ; Agric, 45. Superare is
used in the same sense. — Sicut ex genere telorum conligitur. " As
may be inferred from the nature of their weapons." — Frameas. The
term framea is j ram Latinized, and the modern German word Pfriemy
" an awl," appears to have some affinity to it. The etymology as-
signed by Isidorus is absurd : Framea autem dicta, quod ferrea est :
nam sicut ferramentum, sic Framea dicitur, ac proinde omnia gladius

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP VI. 69

framea. (Isid., Orig., xviii., 6.) Klemm makes mention of three
kinds of framea, and gives drawings of each. (Germ. Alterthumsk.,
p. 242.) — Ad usum habili. " Convenient for use," i. e., manageable.
— Prout ratio poscit. "As occasion requires." Observe that ratio
is here equivalent to rei conditio, i. e.% " nature of the case," or " oc-
casion."

Atque in immensum vibrant, &c. " And hurl them to an immense
distance, being either naked, or lightly covered with a small cloak."
There should be no full stop after vibrant ; they used this light dress
that they might have greater freedom of movement. — Nulla cultus
jactatio. " They have no pride in personal appearance," i. e., either
as regards attire or arms. Tacitus here, and in similar instances,
uses the abstract noun. The writers of the Augustan age would
employ the verb. — Lectissimis coloribus. " With the choicest col-
ors." This decoration at first denoted the valor, afterward the no-
bility of the bearer, and in process of time gave origin to the ar-
morial ensigns so famous in the ages of chivalry. The shields of
the private men were simply colored ; those of the chieftains had
also the figures of animals painted upon them. (Aikin, ad loc. Com-
pare Eichhorn, Staats-, mid Rechtsgesch., i., p. 341.) — Vix uni alterive
cassis aut galea. " Hardly one or two, a casque or a helmet." By
cassis, strictly speaking, is meant a head-piece which has a metallic
basis ; by galea, on the other hand, one that is made of skin or
leather. This distinction, however, is not always observed, though
it is intended to be so in the present instance. (Compare Isidor.,
Orig., xviii., 14.)

Forma. " For beauty." Equivalent here to formositate. The
inferiority of the German horses in appearance and speed, especially
the latter, arose probably from their being reared, not in open
plains, of which there were but few, but in places more or less
covered with forests. — Sed nee variare gyros, &c. "Nor are they
even taught to practice the various changes of the ring, after our
fashion." Literally, "to vary circular movements." The refer-
ence is to the various evolutions and changes of the ring as prac-
ticed by the Romans in the training of their steeds. The object
was, by dint of frequent wheelings, to render the horse perfectly
obedient to the rein. (Compare Virg., Georg., iii., 191, where the
Roman mode of training is alluded to.) — Nee. Observe that this
particle is equivalent here to ne auidem, and compare the remarks
of Hand, ad Tursell., iv., p. 105.

In rectum, aut uno flexu dextros agunt, &c. " They urge them
straight onward, or else by one continued turning toward the right,

70 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VI.

in so close a circle that no one is behind the rest." Observe that
dextros is here equivalent to dextrorsus. The meaning of this pass-
age has been often misunderstood, from its being supposed to re-
fer to military tactics and the evolutions of the battle-field. That
cavalry, however, should always wheel to the right is, as has justly
been remarked, utterly inconceivable, since in some positions this
would make them present their rear, instead of their front, to the
enemy. The truth is, Tacitus is merely alluding to the German
mode of training steeds, as contrasted with that of the Romans.
The latter, as he has just informed us, practiced various changes of
the ring, or, in other words, made the steed perform a variety of
complicated movements, in order to render him, by dint of numer-
ous turnings both to the right and left, more obedient to the rein ;
the Germans, on the other hand, had only two modes of proceeding,
namely, either to ride straight onward, or else to move round in one
continued ring, by a constant turning of the horse toward the right.
And this movement was practiced by a number of riders at one and
the same time, and who followed one another so closely that the
ring or circle which they formed may be said to have had neither
beginning nor end, and hence no one was behind the rest. (Com-
pare Gerlach, ad loc.)

Plus penes peditem roboris. The German cavalry, however, were
generally superior to the Roman in their encounters. (Compare
Cces., B. G., iv., 12, where eight hundred German horse are said
to have put to flight a body of Roman cavalry to the number of five
thousand.) — Eoque mixti prozliantur. A very graphic description of
this mode of fighting is given by Caesar. (B. G., i., 48.) It was
adopted by Caesar himself at the battle of Pharsalia. (B. C, iii.,
75.) — Apia et congruente ad equestrem pugnam, &c. " The agility of
their infantry being well adapted for, and fitly uniting with an eques-
trian conflict." We must be careful not to regard apta and congru-
ente here as mere synonymous terms. The latter, in fact, strength-
ens and amplifies the signification of the former.

Centeni ex singulis pagis sunt. " There are a hundred from each
canton." Compare chapter xii., where other centeni are mentioned,
having reference to civil affairs. The division by hundreds ap-
pears, in fact, to have been a very widely spread one, and to per-
vade the whole of Teutonic and Scandinavian antiquity. (Grote,
Hist, of Greece, iii., p. 74, note.) — Id ipsum. "By this very name,"
i. e., the Hundreders, or a Hundreder, of such a canton. Literally,
" they are called this very thing." — Nomen et honor. " An appella-
tion, and a source of distinction." Grammatically speaking, a hen-

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VI., VII. 71

diadys ; but, in reality, far more expressive than the usual form of
speech would have been.

Cuneos. The term cuneus was applied to a body of foot soldiers
drawn up in the form of a wedge, for the purpose of breaking through
an enemy's line. The common soldiers among the Romans called
it a caput porcinum, or " pig's head." Hence, Agathias (de Imp.
Just., ii., p. 40), in speaking of the wedge-order as adopted by the
Franks against Narses, remarks, tyairjc. re av avrovg avbg ke^atjv ttj
cvvQiau airoTVn&Gaodai.

Consilii quam formidinis arbitrantur. " They consider a mark
rather of prudence than of fear," i. e., a prudent stratagem rather
than an act of cowardice. The ellipsis of magis here, like that of
fid?iAov in Greek, is so common in its occurrence as to need no ex-
amples.— Scutum reliquisse prcEcipuum flagitium. " To have aban-
doned one's shield is a prime disgrace." Compare Horace, Od., ii.,
7, 10 ; and the well-known injunctions of the Spartan women, when
presenting their sons with their shields, *H rav fj kizl rdc, and Tavrrjv
6 irarfjp ooi use foo^e, aal cv ovv ravrrjv ou&, rj [17/ ego.

Ignominioso. " For one thus branded with ignominy." Com.pare,
as regards the punishment of the ignavi and imbelles, what is men-
tioned in chapter xii. — Multique superstites bellorum, &c. "And
many (such) survivors of wTars have put an end to their infamy by
the halter."

CHAPTER VII.

Ex nobilitate. " On account of nobility of birth," i. e., splendor
of descent. Observe here the force of ex, which is nearly similar
to that of propter or secundum. Compare " Distinctio paznarum ex
delicto" (c. 12) ; ex modo virium (c. 34), and consult Botticher, Lex.
Tacit., p. 166. — Nee regibus injinita aut libera potestas. For an ac-
count of the prerogatives and powers of the early German kings,
consult Klemm, Germ. Alter thumsh., p. 204, seqq. Some of the north-
eastern tribes appear, however, to have been ruled over more des-
potically. Compare, also, what is said by our author of the Suiones
and Sitones, in chapters xliv. and xlv. As regards the distinction
between the offices of rex and dux, it may be remarked, that at the
period of the great migration of the northern nations these two ap-
pear to have been united into one. (Klemm, L c.)

Et duces exemplo, &c. " And their leaders (are so) through the
force of example, rather than from any exercise of authority," i. e.,
they command less through the force of authority tt.an of example.

72 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VII.

— Admiratione prasunt. " They take the lead by reason of the ad-
miration which they inspire." — Animadvertere. " To put to death."
This verb commonly means "to punish" simply; here, however,
it is to be taken in a stronger sense, as in Hist., i., 46, and iv., 49,
and we may supply gladio or something similar. Tacitus, it will
be perceived, is descending from heavier to lighter punishments. —
Vincire. Bonds would be something yet more offensive to freemen
than stripes. — Nisi sacerdotibus permission. The statement of Tac-
itus is at variance with that of Caesar, who remarks (B. G., vi., 23),
" Quum bellum civitas aut illatum defendit, aut infer t, magistratus, qui
ei hello prcesint, ut vitce. necisque habeant potestatem deliguntur." Lip-
sius seeks to reconcile these two authorities by supposing that
Tacitus refers to a state of peace, but Csesar to one of war. He is
plainly contradicted, however, by what follows.

Non quasi in pcenam, &c. What was thus inflicted by the priests
was not regarded in the light of a mere judicial sentence, nor as
emanating from the dux, or military leader, but as something coming
from on high. — Sed velut deo imperante, &c. The god Thor, the
German Mars, is meant. (Compare chapter ix.)

Effigiesque et signa quadam, &c. " (On this account), moreover,
they carry to battle effigies (of animals), and certain standards taken
down from their (sacred) groves," i. e., in consequence of this belief
that the god is present in the battle-field, they bear to battle the
effigies of animals answering the purposes of standards, wrhich, from
the circumstance of their having been preserved in sacred groves,
will, it is conceived, propitiate the favor of the divinity, and induce
him to be on their side. With effigies, supply ferarum, an ellipsis
supplied elsewhere by Tacitus himself, Hist., iv., 22 : " Depromta
silvis lucisque ferarum imagines." The expression effigies et signa
qucedam, moreover, means nothing more than " effigies forming or
answering the purpose of a kind of standards," the conjunction et
being bere merely explanatory, and the standards referred to being
like those represented on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus,
namely, the figure of an animal at the top of a pole. (Dilthey, ad
loc. — Gerlach, ad loc. — Klemm, Germ. Alter thumsk., p. 231.)

Turmam aut cuneum. " The troop of horse, or the wedge of foot."
Among the Romans a turma contained thirty men ; here, however,
the word is used in a general sense. — Families et propinquitates.
"Families and kindreds." Eichhorn appears to be in error when
he thinks that these bore more analogy to the Roman gentes than
to relationship of blood or wedlock. (Staats und Rechts Gesch., i.,
p. 84.)— 2^ in proximo pignora. "And close by are the (dearest

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VIL, VXH. 73

pledges (of affection)." The allusion is to their mothers, wives, and
children, who were accustomed to go out with them to war, and
remained by and acted as a sort of guard for the wagons. (Compare
chap, viii., and Hist., iv., 18.) With proximo supply loco. — Sanctis-
simi testes. "The most revered witnesses (of his bearing in the
fight)."

Exigere. " To compare and examine minutely." The force of
this term here is well explained by Gronovius : " taxare et dignoscere ;
expe?idere et comparare inter se vulnera, cum laude ejus, qui majora
et honestiora tulerit." Rhenanus conjectured exsugere, "to suck,"
which the Bipont edition adopts ; but the present reading is far more
spirited. — Cibosque et hortamina. " Both food and encouragement."
Two different things connected with one verb gestare. Compare
ehap. i. : " Mutuo metu aut montibus separatur"

CHAPTER VIII.

Quasdam acies, inclinatas jam, &c. "That some armies, already
giving way and ready to flee, have been rallied by the women."
Literally, " have been restored." — Objectu pectorum. " By present-
ing unto them their breasts," i. e., by presenting their breasts unto
their husbands and brothers, and begging death at their hands rather
than captivity. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) Tacitus very often em-
ploys verbal nouns of the fourth declension, and in the ablative case,
in the place of participles. "

Nomine. "On account of." (Compare Hist., i., 29: " Non quia
rneo nomine paveam," and consult Botticher, Lex. Tac, s. v.) — Effica-
cius obligentur." "Are more effectually bound (to obedience)." —
Puclla quoque nobiles imperantur. Heinsius and Huet, without any
necessity, conjecture nubiles. As regards the fact itself here re-
ferred to, we may compare Suetonius {Aug., 21): "A quibusdam
novum genus obsidum, feminas, exigere tentavit," &c. — Inesse quin
etiam sanctum aliquid, &c. "Nay, they even think that there is
something sacred and prescient in (the female sex)." Compare
C<zs., B. G., I, 50 ; Plut., de Virt. Mul, ii., p. 246 ; Ann., xiv., 29.

Vidimus. It would be a great error, as Dilthey remarks, to infer
from this expression that Tacitus had himself been in Germany.—-
Veledam. Statius (Silv., i., 4, 89) gives the penult of this word
short, " Captivceque preces Vcllda," &c. While Dio Cassius, on the
other hand (lxvii., 5), writes it in Greek with the long quantity,
namely, Be/J/dav. The former appears more correct. Veleda was
a female of the Bructeri, and had much to do with the project of

74 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VIII., IX.

Civilis to drive the Romans from Gaul. Her influence was very
great among all classes of the Germans, and she contributed by her
predictions to some of their most brilliant successes. She was sur-
rendered to the Romans, however, by her own countrymen, perhaps
by Civilis himself, and Statius (I. c.) alludes to her captivity. She
is said to have dwelt in a tower, according to some in a cave, at a
place now called Spillenberg, on the right bank of the Luppia or
Lippe. Various explanations have been given of the name, some
of which may be seen in Ryckius, ad Tac., Hist., iv., 61, p. 444.
Dilthey makes it signify " a female inhabitant of the forest" (Wald.-
lewohneriri) ; and Grater (Idunna, 1816, N. 6) derives it from Wale
Hulda, i. e., the Witch Hulda, of whom there are traditions even at
the present day in the popular superstitions of Thuringia.

Auriniam. Tacitus, in all probability, has given us here, by mis-
take, a common instead of a proper name. The northern nations
gave the name Alrunen to women of this kind, which some derive
from all, and runa, " a mystery" or " secret," on account of their
being supposed to be omniscient. (Dilthey, ad loc.) Hence, in all
likelihood, the conjecture of Lipsius, namely, Aluriniam, of which
Seebode approves, presents us with the true reading here. Jornan-
des, moreover (Goth., c. 24), speaks of the German women called
AlioruncE, a term equivalent, as he informs us, to "magce. mulieres."

Complures alias. Among these may be named Ganna, who suc-
ceeded Veleda, and was held in equally high veneration. She ac-
companied Masyus, king of the Semnones, to Rome in the time of
Domitian, and was very honorably received. (Dio Cass., lxvii., 5.)
Non adulatione, nee tamquam, &c. " Not, (however), with a spirit
of servile adulation, nor as if they would make them divinities," t.
c, not, however, with that spirit of adulation which would raise
mortals to deities. A sarcastic allusion to the usages of his own
countrymen in the case of their emperors, &c.

CHAPTER IX.

Deorum maxime Mer curium colunt. Scarcely any thing is known
about the religion of the ancient Germans. The few notices we
have respecting it are chiefly in the writings of the Greeks and Ro-
mans, who did not understand their language, and, with very few
exceptions, had never visited the country ; or in those of the Christ-
ian fathers and ecclesiastics, who were more eager to condemn
the superstitions of the pagans than to make minute researches into
their character and origin. The deity whom Tacitus calls Mercu-

N0TE3 Ox\ THE GERMANIA. CHAP. IX. 75

rius seems to have been the Wodan or Odin of the Germans. The
Gauls and Thracians also honored Mercury above all the other gods.
(Cces., B. G., vi.. 17 ; Herod., v., 7.) ' Mereurii dies is Wodenstag,
or Wednesday.

Cui certis dicbus, &c. " Whom on certain days they consider it
lawful to propitiate with human victims also." These victims were
usually prisoners taken in war, and the mode in wilich they were
sacrificed may be learned from Strabo (vii., p. 295). Germanicus
saw in the Saltus Teutobergiensis the altars on which, after the
overthrowT of Varus, the tribunes and principal centurions were im-
molated. {Ann., i., 61.) We find mention of human sacrifices
among the Semnones (Germ., c. 39) ; the Cimbri (Oros., v. 15) ; the
Saxones (Sidon. Apoll., Ep., viii., 6) ; the Heruli (Procop., ii., 14) ;
the Franks (Id., ii., 25), &c. It would be unjust, however, to our
German forefathers to suppose that such horrid rites were confined
to them. They appear to have prevailed among almost all the na-
tions of antiquity, including even the Greeks and Romans them-
selves. (Plin., H. N., xxx., 3.)

Herculem. (Consult chap, iii.) — Martern. Mars appears to be
identical with Tlwr or Thoron. At a subsequent period, however,
the German Thor appears to have been confounded with the Jupiter
of the Romans, being regarded as the god of the thunder (Donnergott),
and hence Thursday (Thorstag) received the appellation of Bonner s-
tag, which it still retains.

Pars Suevorum et Isidi sacrificat. All kinds of conjectures have
been formed respecting this Isis, and her connection with the Suevi.
The most probable appears to be, that by Isis was meant the moon,
which wras worshiped by the Germans. (Cces., B. G., vi., 21.) The
symbol of Isis would resemble either a pinnace, or the crescent
moon. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Signum ipsum. " The symbol
itself (of the goddess)." — In modum liburnce figuratum. " Fashioned
after the manner of a Liburnian galley." Supply navis after Liburnce,
The Liburnian galleys were commonly biremes, made very sharp
in the bows, and built expressly for speed. (Diet. Ant., s. v. Li-
burna.)

Nee cohibere parietibus, &c. " They do not consider it in accord-
ance with the greatness of celestial beings either to restrain," &c.
The same is said of the Persians, from whom the Germans are by
some supposed to be sprung. (Compare Herod., i., 131 ; Cic, De
Leg., i., 2.) — Lucos et nemora. "Groves and woodlands." The
term nemus is more extensive in signification than lucus, and has
the same relation to it that the whole has to a part. Compare Cato

76 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. IX., X.

(ap. Prise, xiv., p. 629), " Lucum Dianium in nemore Aricino," &c.,
and consult Dbderlein, Lat. Syn., ii., p. 90 ; and, on the subject of
the consecration of groves by the ancient nations, compare the ie-
marks of Du Cange, Gloss., s. v. Arbores Sacrivi, p. 361, ed Hensch.
Deorumque nominibus, &c. " And they call by the names of (dif-
ferent) deities that secret power, which they see with the eye of
reverential faith alone." The allusion is to the secret and myste-
rious idea of deity, which they form unto themselves, and which
they style by different names, such as Tuisco, Wodan, Thor, &c,
but which they do not presume to embody into any external form.
Some commentators less correctly refer secretum Mud to the mys-
terious horror and gloomy silence of the sacred groves.

CHAPTER X.

Auspicia, sortesque, &c. u They observe auspices and lots as much
as any people whatsoever," i. e., no people are more addicted to di-
vining by means of omens and lots. Observe the expression ut qui
maxime, the same, in fact, as ut Mi faciunt qui maxime observant, and
compare the Greek kv role fidXcGra. — In surculos amputant. " They
cut into small pieces." — Notis quibusdam discretos. " Distinguished
by certain marks." — Temere ac fortuito. "Without order and at
random." Observe that this is not a pleonastic form of expression,
but that fortuito enlarges on the idea implied in temere. A method
of divination similar to the one here described by Tacitus was prac-
ticed by the Scythians. (Herod., iv., 67.)

Si publice consulatur. " If there be a consulting of the lots in a
matter of public import." We have given consulatur here with
Bekker, Liinemann, Grotefend, and Gunther. The more common
reading in the latest editions is consuletur, which Walther and oth-
ers advocate, but on very unsatisfactory grounds. — Ter singulos tol-
lit. " Three times takes up a lot," i. e., takes up three lots one after
another. We must be careful not to render this, " takes up each
three times." (Compare Orelli, Symb., p. 13.)

Si prohibuerunt. Supply sortes, and observe the employment of
the active prohibuerunt in conjunction with the passive permissum,
a change of voices not unusual in Tacitus. — Auspiciorum fides adhuc
exigitur. " The sanction of auspices is required in addition," i. e.t
a confirmation by omens is in addition required.

Et Mud quidem etiam hie notum. " That other custom, indeed, is
also known even here." The pronoun Mud refers to the custom
prevalent in other lands, namely, among the Greeks and Romans,

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. X. 77

and is in apposition with avium voces volatusque interrogare. Doder-

lein (ad Agric., p. 64) regards et etiam here as pleonastic,

incorrectly, however.

Proprium gentis. He here speaks principally with reference to
the Romans. The same custom is recorded of the Persians, the
kinsmen of the German race. (Herod., i., 189 ; vii., 55.) Compare
Dilthey, ad loc. — Candidi. This will remind us of the white horses
among the Persians, that were sacred to the sun. — Contacti. " Pro-
faned." Literally, "touched," i. e., polluted or sullied.— Hinnitus-
que ac fremitus observant. " And mark their neighings and snort-
ings." Dilthey compares with this the story of the manner in which
Darius Hystaspis is said to have obtained the kingdom (Herod., iii.,
85), connected as that story is with the adoration paid by the Per-
sians to the sun. (Justin, i., 10.)

Ulli auspicio. "To any kind of augury." — Sed apud proceres.
"But among the nobles also." Observe that sed is here for sed et,
or sed etiam. Compare chap, xv., " Sedpublice." — Sacerdotes. The
Germans had no distinct order of priests like the Druids (Cces.,
B. G., vi., 21), though, from this chapter, it seems that in each
state there were men invested with both a sacred and a magisterial
character, who were frequently of noble or even kingly descent, as
in the case of Segimundus at Ara Ubiorum (Ann., i., 57), and Libys,
the priest of the Catti, mentioned by Strabo (vii., p. 448). In cases-
of minor importance, the head of the family performed the necessary
xites. (Compare Luden, Gesch. der Deutschen, i., p. 181, seq.)

Se enim ministros deorum, &c. "For they consider themselves
(daring the ceremony) as the ministers of the gods, the horses as
privy (to their will)," i. e., as divinely inspired. After conscios sup-
ply voluntatis eorum, or something equivalent.

Alia observatio auspiciorum. " Another mode of taking the aus-
pices," i. e., another mode of divination. — Explorant. " They strive
to ascertain." — Cum electo. " With a chosen champion." — Commit-
tunt. The verbs committere, comparare, and componere are properly
applied to matching two combatants together. So " incompositus,"
"not well matched." (Be Or. D., 26.) — Pro prcejudicio. "As a
presage." If the captive conquers, it is a bad omen for them ; if,
on the contrary, their own countryman proves victorious, it is a
favorable presage. Prcejudicium is, properly, " a judgment or sen-
tence which affords a precedent to be afterward followed," and
therefore, in the present instance, literally, " a means of judging be-
forehand."

78 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XI.

CHAPTER XL

Principes. " The chiefs." — Quorum penes plebem arbitrium est.
" The decision of which rests with the people." — Pertractentur
This is the reading of all the early editions, and of almost all the
MSS. Muretus and others, however, preferred prcetractentur ; but,
in the first place, the words ea quoque militate against this conjec-
ture, and, besides, pratractare is found nowhere else, and is, in fact,
not Latin, the ancient writers using ante tractare.

Fortuitum et subitum. " Accidental and sudden." — Certis diebus.
" On stated days." — Cum aut inchoatur luna, &c. The moon was
one of the principal deities oT the Germans (Cas., B. G., vi., 21),
and its changes would, therefore, naturally control their most im-
portant deliberations. (Compare Cas., B. G., i., 50, and Plin., H.
N,, xvi., 44.) — Nee dierum numerum, &c. A trace of this mode of
reckoning appears in the words se'nnight and fortnight. Compare,
also, the language of the Sacred Writings : " And the evening and
the morning were the first day" (Gen., i., 5); and, again, "In the
ninth day of the month at even, from even unto even, shall ye cel-
ebrate your Sabbath." (Levit., xxiii., 32.)

Sic constituunt, sic condicunt. " In this way they decree, in this
way they summon," i. e., when they appoint a time in which any
thing is to be done, or summon any individual to justice, they com-
pute the period by so many nights, not by so many days. Brotier
cites illustrations of this practice from the Salic law, Tit. 48 : " Inter
decern nodes ;" Tit. 50 : " In noctes quadraginta" &c.

Illud ex liber tate vitium. " The following evil habit arises from
the freedom which they enjoy." — Quod non simul, nee ut jussi, &c.
With regard to the Treviri, on the other hand, Caesar (B. £., v., 56)
says, " Qui ex Us novissumus venit, in conspectu multitudinis omnibus
cruciatibus affectus necatur."

Ut turbce placuit. "As soon as it has pleased the assembled
throng-." Observe that ut with the perfect indicative has the force
of simul ac. Gronovius conjectures ut turba placuit, " as soon as
the number has appeared sufficient," i. e., for the transaction of
business. But the MSS. are all against this, neither is the change
at all required.

Quibus turn et coercendi jus est. Compare chap. vii. — Decus
bellorum. " Warlike renown." — Auctoritate suadendi magis, &c.
" More by reason of ability to advise than from any power to com-
mand," i. e., weight of character and general ability to give good

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XI., XII. 79

advice insures them attention, rather than any authority to compel
it arising from rank or station. — Frameas concutiunt. "They clash
their frameee." — Armis laudare. Compare Hist., v., 17 : " Sono ar- '
morum tripudiisque (itdillis mos) approbata sunt dicta."

CHAPTER XII.

Apud consilium. These assemblies were convened chiefly to dis-
cuss matters relating to war, and the offences tried before them
were principally such as affected the military interests of the nation.
Other crimes were placed under the cognizance of the principes,
\vho were elected to administer justice among the different cantons
and villages. — Discrimen capitis intcndere. " To prefer a capital
charge," i. e., to prosecute capital offences. Literally, " to aim (or
direct) at one a risk of life, %. e., a charge involving a risk of life.
There is no allusion whatever here to the Roman capitis deminutio,
in its judicial sense. For an account of this last, consult Diet. Ant.,
s. v. Caput.

Ex delicto. "According to the degree of delinquency." — Arbor-
ibus suspendunt. They were, in fact, gibbeted alive. Heavy pen-
alties were denounced against those who should take them down
alive or dead. These are particularized in the Salic law, and cited
by Brotier. — Corpore infames. Lipsius conjectures torpore infames,
and strives to defend this reading in a patriotic excursus, which is
given in Oberlin's edition at p. 830. Consult, however, Dilthey's
note, where the whole subject is discussed. — Coeno acr palude.
" Amid mire, and in a fen," i. e., amid the mire of a fen. A body was
found in 1817, at a considerable depth, in a moor in East Friesland,
which is supposed to have undergone this punishment. (Kletiim,
Germ. Alterth., p. 56. — Weishaupt, ad loc.) — Crate. "A hurdle."
Heavy stones were, in all probability, placed on the top of this.
For instances of a similar mode of punishment among the Romans,
compare Plant., Pan., ii., 65; Liv., i., 51; Columella, i., 6, 22;
Sueton., Calig., 16.

Illuc rcspicit. " Has the following principle in view." — Scelera

flagitia. By the former are meant, "open crimes ;" by the

latter, "acts of infamy." — Sed et levioribus delictis, &c. " (Xor
this alone) ; but there is also, for slighter offenses, a punishment
proportioned to the degree of delinquency." Delictis is generally
regarded here as the ablative, with an ellipsis of in ; but the dative
is far neater. — Poena. We have followed here the conjecture of
Axidalius, with Ernesti, Brotier, Oberlin, Bekker, and others. The

80 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XII., XIII.

common text has pro modo poznarum, equorum pecorumque, &c. — ■
Equorum pecorumque. Their property, in fact, consisted of these.
Compare chap. v. : " Eceque sola et gratis sima opes sunt."

Eliguntur reddant. (Compare Cces., B. G., vi., 23.) — Per

pagos vicosque. (Compare Cces., B. G., iv., 1.) In like manner, the
state of the Catti was divided into cantons and villages. (Ann., i.,
56.) Helvetia was divided into four cantons. (Cces., B. G., i., 12.)
A similar division was adopted by the Saxons in England. — Consil-
ium simul et auctoritas. " As a council of advice, and, at the same
time, a means of enforcing their authority."

CHAPTER XIII.

Nihil autem neque publicce, &c. "They transact, moreover, no
business, either public or private, without being armed." (Compare
Cces., B. G., v., 56 ; Thucyd., i., 6.) — Non moris. " It is no part of
their customs," i. e., it is not customary. The partitive genitive. —
Suffecturum probaverit. " Shall have ascertained by actual trial that
he will be equal to the task." Observe the force of probaverit, im-
plying that some kind of proof of his capabilities was to be given by
the young man. — Ornant. The singular ornat would have accorded
better with the conjunction vel.

Hcec apud illos toga. " This, with them, is the manly gown," i. e.,
this, with them, takes the place of the manly gown, or toga virilis,
among the Romans. (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v. Impubes and Clavus
Latus.) — Mox reipublicce. With this ceremony (as with marriage
in the case of daughters) the power of the father over the child
ended, and the young man now took part in public assemblies, &c.

Insignis nobilitas, &c. The meaning of this sentence seems to
be, that a man's nobility or achievements gave his sons a right to be
accounted of princely rank, even before they were old enough to
have distinguished themselves in the field ; and, accordingly, they
associated as comites with young men, who had reached a more ro-
bust age, and had already distinguished themselves. — Ceteris robus-
tioribus, &c. " They are associated, (however), unto the other
youths that are more robust of frame, and have long since been ap-
proved, nor do they blush to be seen among the companions of
these." With rubor, supply est illis. The more common phrase-
ology, however, is rubori est, which is used elsewhere by Tacitus
himself. (Ann., xi., 17 ; xiv., 55.) Ernesti and Brotier, following
Lipsius, Freinshem, and others, read ceteri in place of ceteris, from
a complete misapprehension of the meaning of the passage.

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIII., XIV. 81

Gradus quin etiam et ipse comitatus habet. " Moreover, even com-
panionship itself has its several degrees." The words et ipse are
expunged by Walch, and perhaps correctly. They are certainly not
needed. In all probability, et arose, by some corruption, from etiam,
which precedes, and perhaps ipse was then inserted to give more
emphasis to comitatus. (Consult Gerlach, ad loc.)

Hcec dignitas, h<z vires. " In this consists their dignity, in this
their strength." — Id no-men, ea gloria est. "Does this confer a dis-
tinguished name, is this a source of renown." Literally, " Is this a
name, is this a glory." — Et ipsa plerumque fama bella profligant.
" And they oftentimes nearly bring wars to a close by their reputa-
tion alone." Profligare is, "to cause to totter," literally. Hence
it is frequently followed by conficere. From this has been derived
the meaning of " nearly to finish." What is mentioned in the text
is related by Caesar of Indutiomarus (B. G., v., 55) ; by Tacitus of
Segestes (Ann., i., 57) ; of Flavius, the brother of Arminius (Ann.,
ii., 9) ; and of Inguiomerus (Ann., ii., 45).

CHAPTER XIV.

Jam vero infame, &c. " Above all, however, is it a source of in-
famy and reproach during the whole of one's life." The expression
jam vero, like turn vero, is always employed to introduce the climax,
and requires, therefore, occasionally a somewhat free mode of ren-
dering. Compare the version of Botticher, " Das aber vollends ist
furs ganze Leben eine Schande und eine Schmach." — Probrosum. Ob-
serve that infame here refers to the actual infamy, considered per
se, and probrosum to the reproaching of one with that stain upon his
character.

Superstitem principi, &c. Hence, when Chonodomar, king of the
Alemanni, was taken prisoner by the Romans, his companions, two
hundred in number, and three of his most intimate friends (amici
junctissimi), deeming it infamous to survive their prince, or else not
to die for him, if chance should so will it, delivered themselves up to
be thrown into fetters. (Amm. Mar cell., xvi., 12, 60.) — Prcecipuum
sacramentum. " Is their chief and most sacred obligation." Sac-
ramentum here denotes a sacred duty, &c, and one generally guarded
by an oath. Hence the term was especially applied to the military
oath of the Roman soldiery ; and Tacitus, therefore, expressly em-
ploys the word in the present case to show how binding among the
Germans was the obligation to which he refers.

Tueare. So quiescas (chap, xxxvi.), and acciperes, coerceas, asse~
D2

82 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIV.

quare (Ann., ii., 30 ; iii., 54; vi., 8.) — Exigunt enim, &c. Montes-
quieu derives from this the origin of vassalage. At first the prince
gave to his nobles arms and provisions. As cupidity increased,
money, and then lands, were required, which last, from benefices
(beneficia), became at length hereditary possessions, and were called
fiefs. Hence the establishment of the feudal system. (Esprit des
Lois, xxx., 3.)

Ilium bellatorem equum. " That war-steed." The pronoun is here
meant to express gesture, or a pointing at the object sought to be
obtained. So, likewise, Mam in the succeeding clause. Observe, •
moreover, the expression bellatorem equum, and compare Virgil,
Georg., ii., 145: " Hinc bellator equus campo sese arduus infert."
Consult, also, Botticher's remarks on the poetical complexion of the
style of Tacitus. — Nam epulce et convictus, &c. " For banquets and
common tables, although homely, yet marked by abundant supply,
take the place of pay." We have followed here the reading of the
earlier editions, by which largi apparatus becomes the genitive of
quality (Zumpt, § 426). This is also given by the Bipont editor,,
and by Passow, Hess, Dilthey, and others. The other reading is
as follows : " Nam epulce et, quamquam incomti largi tamen appara-
tus" &c. "For banquets and entertainments, although homely,
yet plentiful, take the place of pay." In this latter, apparatus be-
comes the nominative plural. The former reading, however, is un-
doubtedly the true one. The pay of the companions did not consist
in mere occasional banquets, but in their sharing a daily table with
the leader, or, as the term convictus literally means, " a living with"
him. This common table, always plentifully supplied, was occa-
sionally rendered still more so by a banquet on a large scale.

Per bella et raptus. "By means of wars and plundering excur-
sions." (Compare Caesar, B. G., vi., 23: " Latrocinia nullum ha-
bent infamiam, qua extra fines cujusque civitatis fiunt") — Exspectare
annum. " To await the produce of the year?" Another poetic form
of expression. Annus is often used by the poets for proventus anni,
or messis ; as, for instance, by Lucan, hi., 452. (Compare Mar Hand,
ad Stat., Sylv., iii., 2, 22.) Agriculture was not entirely neglected
by the Germans ; it was only not prosecuted with any great degree
of zeal. (Compare Caes., B. G., vi., 22 : " Agricultures non student.")
The cultivation of the fields was left, as Tacitus himself informs us,
to the women, old men, and weakest part of the family. ( Vid. chap.
xv. Compare chap, xxvi.)

Vocare hostes. " To challenge the foe." The simple vocare is
here employed for provocare. — Vulnera mereri. u To earn wounds."

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XV. 83

Another poetical form of expression for fortiter pugnare. — Pigrum
et iners. " Spiritless and inert."

CHAPTER XV.

Multum venalibus. The MSS. have non multum, but the negative
has been rejected from the text by many editors, at the suggestion
of Lipsius, who in this way seeks to reconcile the account of Tac-
itus with that of Caesar {B. G., vi., 21), where' we find it stated of
the ancient Germans, that " Vita omnis in venationibus atque in
studiis rei militaris consistit." So, again {B. G., iv., 1), it is said
of the ancient Suevi, that " multum sunt in venationibus." — Per otium.
" Amid total inaction." Observe here the employment of per with
the accusative, after an ablative {venatibus) in the previous and
corresponding clause. There appears to be more of continuance
expressed by the preposition with its case. Longolius cites the
following instances of this same peculiarity in other parts of Tacitus :

" Per acies aut proscriptione." {Ann., i., 2) : " Per obsequium

pradiis." {Germ., c. 40) : " Virtute aut per artem." {Agric., c. 9) :
" Temeritate aut per ignamam." {lb., c. 41.)

Delegata domus etpenatium, &c. " The care of the house, and fam-
ily affairs, and of the fields, having been given over to the women,"
&c. The verb delegare or legare properly means, " to commission
another to act for you." The penates, in strictness, presided over
the penus, or general receptacle of family stores ; and also over the
operations by which food was rendered more available for human
purposes. Hence, eventually, they became the guardians of family
affairs in general. It is in this sense that Tacitus transfers the
term from Roman to German customs. (Compare Virgil, Mn., i.f
704.)

Familia. Properly, "the gang of slaves." Here, however, it
merely means " family." — Mir a diversitate naturce. " By a strange
contrariety in their nature." — Vel armentorum, velfrugum. " Either
a certain number of cattle, or a certain quantity of grain." These
genitives may be supposed to depend on aliquid understood, al-
though Dilthey refers them at once to the quod which follows. —
Gaudent. Referring to the principes. — Phalcrce torques que. "Rich
rappings and gold chains." (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v.)

Jam et pecuniam, &c. The Romans had not only procured the
friendship of Ariovistus, Segestes, Malovendus, and others, in this
way, but had also begun to purchase peace of the Germans. {Vid.
chap, xlii,, and compare Ann., ii., 13 ; Dio Cass., lxvii., 7 ; lxviii., 9.)

84 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XVI.

CHAPTER XVI.

Nullas Germanorumpopulis, &c. Towns are, however, mentioned
by Tacitus (Ann., ii., 62), Caesar (B. G., iv., 19), &c. Bekker con-
tends that Tacitus, deceived by the false reports of others, has made
a mistake here. As a general rule, however, especially for Germa-
nia Transrhenana, his observation seems to be correct. For the
reason of this custom of the ancient Germans, see Hist., iv., 64. —
Junctas sedes. " Contiguous settlements." — Colunt discreti ac di-
versi. " They dwell scattered and separate." — Utfons, ut campus,
tit nemus, placuit. Traces of this early mode of dwelling remain
in the endings of the names of many towns and villages, such as
Born, Bach, Feld, Wald, Hayn, Berg, Stein, Au, Furth, &c, exam-
ples of which may be found in Cluver's Germania Antiqua, i., 7, 13.

Connexis et coharentibus cedijiciis. " With the buildings adjoining
one another and running on in rows." — Spatio circumdat. This
mode of building still prevails in Westphalia, in the Spessart Mount-
ain in Bavaria, and in other quarters of Germany. (Consult Moser,
Osnabruck. Geschichte, p. 142.)

Camentorum. " Of building stone." Ccementa are, properly, the
chips made in hewing stones (from ccedere). — Materia ad omnia
utuntur, &c. " They make use for all purposes of timber unhewn,
and without any thing pleasing to the eye or calculated to attract."
Observe the expression citra speciem aut delectaiionem, which means,
in fact, that they took no pains to make it look well. Citra implies
a stopping short of something : it could not have been used if they
had taken pains to make it ugly.

Diligentius. " With more than ordinary care." Supply solito. —
Illinunt. Barth, in his Urgeschichte von Teutschland (ii., p. 249),
conjectures inlimunt, but, unfortunately, this word is not Latin. —
Terra itapura ac splendente. A kind of gypsum is meant. — Ut pic-
turam ac lineamenta, &c. " As to give the appearance of a painting
and of colored outlines."

Subterraneos specus aperire. " To dig subterranean caves." Com-
pare the account which Xenophon gives of the dwellings in the cold
uplands of Armenia (Anab., iv., 5, 25). — Suffugium hiemi. In these
subterranean dwellings they appear to have carried on their manu-
facture of linen. Compare Pliny (H. N., xix., 2) : " Germani autem
defossi atque sub terra id opus agunt." — Aperta populatur. " He lays
waste merely the open country." Supply loca. — Fallunt. " Escape
his observation."

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XVII. 85

CHAPTER XVII.

Sagum. The sagum was a sort of cloak, which coveitd the
shoulders and back, and among the Romans was worn chiefly by-
rustics and soldiers. — Fibula, aut, si desit, spina consertum. " Fast-
ened by a clasp, or, if that be wanting, by a thorn." The rich
would, of course, use the former, the poor the latter. — Cetera in-
tecti. Compare Caesar's account of the endurance of cold by the
Suevi. (B. G., iv., 1.) So Pomponius Mela says of the Germans
in general : " Maximo frigore nudi agunt, antequam puberes sint"
(hi, 3).

Nonfluitante. " Not flowing loosely." (Compare Lucan., i, 430 ;
Pers., iii, 53 ; Juv., ii, 169.) — Sicut Sarmatce ac Parthi. The Ori-
ental nations, in general, were accustomed to wear loose and flow-
ing garments. The attire of the Sarmatians and Parthians appears
on ancient coins. It was imitated by the Vangiones, a German tribe
on the Rhine, in the territory around Worms and Speier, as we learn
from Lucan, I. c. — Singulos artus exprimente. " Exhibiting the shape
of each limb."

Gerunt et ferarum pelles. Compare Caesar, B. G., iv, 1. — Prox-
imi ripa negligenter, &c. " Those nearest the bank (of the stream)
with little care (in their selection), those farther inland displaying
more research," i. e., the tribes near the Roman frontiers, having
the means of procuring other kinds of dress, by means of commerce,
did not use much care in selecting the skins and furs ; those in the
interior, however, having no such means, were compelled to be
more particular. Observe that ripcz refers to the bank as well of
the Danube as the Rhine ; in other words, to the whole Roman fron,
tier. Muretus, Acidalius, and others, are in favor of transposing
the present arrangement, and of reading uproximi ripa exquisitius,
ulter lores negligenter" but the explanation just given is a sufficient
answer to this.

Et detracta velamina spargunt maculis, &c. " And they diversify
the skins taken off from them with spots, and with strips of the furs
of marine animals," &c. All savages are fond of variety of colors,
hence the practice here alluded to on the part of the Germans. The
marine animals meant were probably of the seal kind. — Maculis,
pellibusque. We have placed a comma after maculis, to show that
we have here no hendiadys, as some maintain, but that the allusion
m maculis is to actual colored spots, an idea which agrees very well
with the use of the verb spargere (compare Virg., Eclog., ii, 41, and

$& JfOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XVII., XVIII.

Serviu-9, ad loc), and with the rude taste of the people themselves.
*Dilthey, ad loc.) — Exterior oceanus atque ignotum mare. According
to Brotier, the northern ocean and the icy sea.

Variant. " They variegate." — Partemque vestitus superioris, &c.
u And they do not lengthen out the upper part of their garment into
sleeves; they are bare as to their arms below and above." Brachium
is from the hand to the elbow ; lacertns, from the elbow to the shoul-
Aer. (Compare Ovid, Met., i., 501.)

CHAPTER XVIII.

Sed et proximo, pars pectoris patet, &e. " (Nor this alone), but
the part of the bosom immediately adjacent also lies open to the
view : although their matrimonial engagements are rigidly adhered
to." There is some doubt with regard to the words at the beginning
of this chapter, from sed et to patet, several editions exhibiting them
at the close of the preceding chapter. The arrangement which we
have adopted seems the neater one of the two. The expression
quamquam sever a illic matrimonia is intended to be explanatory of
what immediately precedes, since a Roman reader, judging from
the license and corruption that characterized so many of the females
of his own country, would imagine that this nudeness of person on
the part of the German women betokened a corrupt state of morals.

Qui non libidine, &c. " Who, not through incontinence (on their
part), but on account of their rank, are solicited by very many offers
of marriage," i. e., have numerous wives offered them by the parents
of these females, in order to derive advantage from the rank and
influence of the party to whom the offer is made. Compare the ex-
planation of Forcellini, " quorum favorem et gratiam plurimi captant
datis in matrimonium filiabus ." We must be careful, however, not
to confound this mode of speaking with the form of expression em-
ployed by Virgil (Mn., vii., 333), Ambire connubiis, "to circumvent,
or win the favor of, by the pretext of a marriage." An illustration
of the language of Tacitus may be found in the case of Ariovistus,
as mentioned by Caesar (B. G., I, 53).

Dotem non uxor marito, &c. Among the Germans, wives were
bought, as appears from the Saxon laws. Thus (Tit. vi., de Con-
jugiis, Lex 1) : " Uxor em ducturus trecentos solidos dct parentibus
ejus : si autem sine voluntate parentum, puella tamen consentiente, ducta
fuerit, bis trecentos solidos parentibus ejus componat," &c. On thig
wThole subject consult Ducange, Gloss., s. v. meto, mutidium, widemo ;
and also the work of Hager, " De ritibus veterum Gcrmanorum circa

NOTES ON THE GEKMANIA. CHAP. XVIII., XIX. 87

matrimonia ineunda." Lips., 1733. — Munera probant. "Pass their
approbation on the presents," i. e. examine into their sufficiency.

Munera non ad delicias muliebres qiuzsita. " Presents not selected
to gratify a female taste." Literally, "not selected for female de-
light (in them)," i. e., not such presents as necklaces, bracelets, fine
attire, &c. The repetition of munera appears objectionable here,
especially as hcec munera follows soon after. Consult Bbtticher, ad
Igc. — Comatur. "May be adorned." Como is not derived from
coma, " the hair," but is compounded of co {con) and emo, and signifies,
therefore, " to put together," " arrange," " adorn." It is a word
especially applied to the female sex. Compare Terence {Hcaut., ii.,
2, 11) : " Dum moliuntur, dum comuntur, annus est"

In hcec munera. " On these presents being given." Some, less
correctly, make in here denote a condition, like k~l in Greek, with
the dative. — Hoc maximum vinculum, &c. " This they regard as
the firmest bond of union, these as their mysterious rites, these as
their conjugal deities." This is all in opposition to Roman cus-
toms. The arcana sacra, in the case of the latter people, were
connected with the ceremony of the confarreatio, the taking of the
auspices, the sacrificing of a sow to Juno, &c. Among the Ger-
mans, on the other hand, they consisted merely in the giving of
these simple bridal presents. (Compare Moldenhaicer, Alterth., p.
660, seqq.)

Extra virtutum cogitationes, &c. "Excused from exertions of
fortitude, and exempt from the casualties of war." Commentators
call our attention to the words " bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipien-
Us" as forming an hexameter verse. So also " Urbem Romam"
etc. {Ann., i., 1). — Accipere se, qua liberis inviolata, &c. "That
she receives, what she is to return inviolate and worthy of their ac-
ceptance to her children, what her dauVhters-in-law are to receive,
and, in their turn, transmit to her grandchildren." Editors differ
in opinion respecting both the reading and interpretation of this pass-
age. We have given what appears to he the least objectionable
one. The allusion can not, of course, be to the juncti bones and
equus, but the reference must be to the arma, which are not to be
disgraced by any unfaithful conduct on her part, but to be handed
down as heir-looms.

CHAPTER XIX.
Septa pudicitia. " Fenced around by feelings of chastity." Sev-
eral editions have septa, which would imply that a strict guard was

88 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIX.

kept over them, to preserve them from corruption ; whereas septa
means that their own modesty was a sufficient defence against all
attempts upon their honor, which agrees much better with the gen-
eral sense of the description. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Nullis
spectaculorum illecebris, &c. " Corrupted by no allurements of pub-
lic spectacles, by no incitements of convivial entertainments." On
the corrupting influence of the Roman games and entertainments, -
consult Seneca, Epist., vii., 27; Juvenal, Sat., i., 55, seqq. ; Id., xi.,
162, 201, 202.

Liter arum seer eta. " Clandestine correspondence in writing."
For an account of the various explanations given to this phrase by
different editors, consult Dilthey, ad loc. The meaning which we
have adopted appears the most satisfactory. — Paucissima in tarn nu-
merosa gente adulteria. On the frequency of this crime at Rome
under the emperors, consult Ann., ii., 85 ; Juvenal, vi., 488 ; Id., ix.,
22. — Quorum poznapr as ens. One of the MSS. has parentibus in place
of prcesens, a very improbable reading. Even at Rome, before the
passage of the Lex Julia, the husband might, if he pleased, inflict
punishment on an unfaithful wife. (Dion. Hal, ii., p. 95 ; Suet.,
Tib., 35.)

Accisis crinibus. " With her hair cut short." Cutting off the
hair was regarded as a most disgraceful punishment. (Consult
Du Cange, Gloss., s. v. Decalvatio.) In Luitprand's Laws of the
Langobardi (ii., 17) we find it ordered, u adulter as decalvari etfusti-
gari per vicos vicinantes ipsius loci." — Per omnem vicum. Equivalent
to per totum vicum. — Publicatce enim pudicitice, &c. " For no indul-
gence is shown to open prostitution : such an offender will not find
a husband by beauty, nor by youth, nor by riches." Literally, " to
prostituted modesty," publicatce being here equivalent to vulgatoe.
Lipsius suggests etiam in place of enim, on the ground that Tacitus
refers now not to the adulterous females just spoken of, but to un-
wedded ones. This is all very true, and yet he entirely mistakes
the meaning of the writer. The latter is merely assigning a reason
for the severe punishment of adultery among the Germans ; and
this is because no indulgence is shown to a prostitute. For he who
would spurn the idea of wedding a prostitute would certainly not
tolerate a prostitute in wedlock. (Walther, ad loc.) %

Nemo enim illic vitia ridet, &c. A bitter allusion to the contrast
afforded by the vices of his own countrymen. — Sceculum. " The
fashion of the age." Compare Seneca : " Desinit esse remedio locus,
ubi, qua fuerant vitia, mores sunt."

Melius quidem adhuc ea civitates. " Still better, indeed, do those

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIX., XX. 89

communities (of the Germans) act." Supply agunt. The later
Latin writers use adhuc to strengthen comparatives, where the
•earlier ones (Cicero, for example) would have employed eliam.
Compare Seneca (Epist., 49), " Adhuc paulo minus:" Id. ib., 47,
" Adhuc tenuior est :" Suet., Tib., 17, " Amplior adhuc cumulus," &c.

Et cum spe votoque uxoris semel transigitur. " And (in which) the
expectations and wishes of a wife are brought to a close once for
all." Literally, " and (in which) it is done for with the expectation
and wish of a wife once for all." According to Procopius (ii., 14),
wives among the Heruli were accustomed to hang themselves by
the graves of their first and only husbands. This is like the prac-
tice of the Suttees in India. (Dilthey, ad loc.) — Ne ulla cogitatio ultra,
ne longior cupiditas. "That there maybe no further thought, no
more prolonged desire (of union)." — Tamquam matrimonium. " As
marriage itself." On losing their husbands, they lose marriage itself.

Finire. " To limit," i. e., by murder or abortion. — Ex agnatis.
By agnati Tacitus means children born after there was already an
heir to the name and property of the father. Generally, by agnati,
in Roman law, were meant relations by the father's side. On the
frequency of infanticide among the Romans, see Ann., iii., 25, 26 ;
XV., 19. Juvenal, ii., 32 ; vi., 366, seqq. — Quam alibi bona leges.
Corruption was never more rife at Rome than after the passage of
the Lex Julia and the Lex Papia Poppcea. The earliest laws of the
Germans, those, namely, of the Salic code, date only from the fifth
century of our era. »

CHAPTER XX.

Nudi. Partial, not entire, nudity is of course meant. Compare
the commencement of chapter xvii. ; consult, also, the commenta-
tors on Virgil, Georg., i., 299. — Sordidi. This term appears rather to
have reference to their attire, scanty as it was, than to their persons.
Filthiness of person would hardly be consistent with the health and
strength which they enjoyed. In chapter xxii., we are told of their
washing themselves with warm water in the cold season ; and
Caesar (B. G., iv., 1) mentions their bathing in rivers.

Uberibus. The term ubera is generally used when speaking of
animals. Among the ancient Germans the mother used to nurture
the child with the breast for the space of two years, if no new off-
spring were born during the interval. Hence the basis of good
health laid for the race during infancy. — Nee ancillis ac nutricibus
delegantur. Among the Romans, on the contrary, the care of tn$

90 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XX.

child was generally given over to Greek nurses, and some of the
common domestic slaves. (Consult Dial, de Or., c. 29.)

Dominum ac servum. The subject class among the ancient Ger-
mans may be divided into three branches : 1 . Tributaries, composed
of those who, when any country was conquered, retained their pos-
sessions, but paid an annual tribute to the conquerors for this priv-
ilege. 2. Serfs {adscripti gleba). 3. Common household slaves
{servi, mancipia). — Nullis educationis deliciis. " By no indulgence in
the mode of bringing up." — Donee cetas separet ingenues, virtus ag-
noscat. " Until age separates the free-born, (until) valor recognizes
(them for her own)." Observe here the force of agnoscere, " to
recognize or acknowledge for what has been previously expected
or wished." Brotier thinks that the age here meant was the twelfth
year, when, as appears from the Salic code {Tit., xxviii.), the boy
first became amenable to the laws. It would seem, however, from
chapter xiii., that a somewhat later period is referred to.

Sera juvenum Venus, &c. " The marriages of the ycung men are
(comparatively) late, and therefore the years of puberty have no
drain upon them." Tacitus is here comparing northern with south-
ern habits. In Italy, and other southern countries, the sexes arrive
at maturity much sooner than among northern nations. Cicero's
daughter, for example, was betrothed at ten years of age, and mar-
ried probably at thirteen or fourteen. As regards what is here said
of the German youth, compare the language of Caesar, B. G., vi., 21 :
" Qui diutissime impuberes per mans erunt,^ &c.

Nee virgines festinantur, &c. " Neither are the virgins brought
forward early ; there is the same long period of youth, a similar de-
velopment of form. They are united equally-matched and robust,"
&c. — Ac robora parentum liberi referunt. " And the children inherit
the vigorous constitutions of their parents." Literally, " bring back
again," i. e., exhibit again to the view.

Sororum filiis, &c. Hence, in the history of the Merovingian
kings of France, so many instances occur of attachment and favor
shown toward sisters and their children, and so many wars under-
taken on their account. {Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, xviii., 22.)
— Qui apud patrem. " As by the father." Literally, " as with the
father." We have retained apud in the text, from the conjec-
ture of Rhenanus, with the best editors. The previous reading was
ad patrem, which Passow very unnecessarily recalls, and Walther
attempts, though not very clearly, to defend. The origin of the cus-
tom mentioned in the text has never been satisfactorily explained.
It may, perhaps, have arisen from the circumstance of the sister's

NOTES OS THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XX., XXI.

both before marriage and during widowhood, being under the guardi-
anship of the brother, if there were no father living. (Compare
Dilthey, ad loc.)

Et in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigunt. The meaning is, that,
in taking hostages from any one, they demand the children of his
sister rather than his own children. — Tamquam ii et animum firmius,
&c. " As if these both hold a firmer sway over the affections, and
exercise a wider influence over the family at large." They are not
only dear to the father, but equally dear to the mother's brother.

Haredes tamen, &e. The German laws of inheritance may be
learned from the Salic code, Tit., lxii., de Alodis. — Liberi. Under
the term liberi are here included the nepotes and pronepotes. — Nullum
testamentum. There was no will, because the rules of succession
were established by law. — Patrui, avuncitli. " Paternal uncles, ma-
ternal ones."

Quanto plus propinquorum, &c. " The more blood-relations there
are, the greater the number of relatives by the mother's side, in so
much higher favor stands old age ; nor are there any advantages in
being childless." Propinqui are those with whom there exists any
relationship by blood ; cognati, relations by the mother's side ; ag~
nati, relations by the father's side ; qffines, relations by marriage. —
Nee ulla orbitatis pretia. There is no advantage, says Tacitus, in
being childless among the Germans, as there is among the Romans ;
and he alludes in this to the court paid at Rome unto rich persons
without children by the Haredipetce, or legacy-hunters. This prac-
tice formed a frequent subject of censure and ridicule with the Ro-
man writers. Consult Cic.y Farad., v., 2; Horat., Sat., ii., 5; Id.
Epist., i., 1, 78 ; Plin., Epist., iv., 15 ; Senec., Cons, ad Max., ii.,
1 19 ; Juvenal, xii., 95 ; Tac., Ann., xiii., 52 ; Id. ib., xiv., 40 ; Petron.,
i. 116 ; Martial, iv., 56 ; Ammian. Marcell., xiv., 6.

CHAPTER XXI.

Suscipere. " To adopt." This inheriting, as it were, of enmities
is an old evil in all nations, whose political organization is based
upon family and clan relationships. On its existence among the
Greeks, consult the remarks of Miiller (Eumenides, p. 126). — Nee
implacabiles durant. " These (enmities), however, do not continue
implacable." It was a wise provision, that among this fierce and
warlike people revenge should be commuted for a payment. — Horn-
iaAium. This word occurs also in Pliny the elder, Petronius, and
<v mctilian, but never in the writers of the golden age of Latinity.

92 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXI,

— Recipitque satis j actionem universa domus. " And the whole family
of the offender becomes responsible for the payment of the fine."
Compare the Salic code (Leg., i., 2), as given by Brotier, where
traces of such a law may be found. It was abolished by King Chil-
debert (Decret., 1. 15). Some, less correctly, explain the present
passage so as to mean, that the whole of the family of the injured
person receives part of the fine ; others, that by the payment of the
fine to the prosecutor the vengeance of the whole family is satisfied.
The use of recipere in the sense of " to make one's self responsible
for" is not uncommon. (Compare Cic, Phil, v., 18 ; Ep. ad Att.y
v., 17; Liv., xxxiii., 13.)

Utiliter in publicum. " (An arrangement) fraught with advantage
to the public." Literally, " in a way useful to the public." So in
commune alacres. (Ann., xv., 12.) — Juxta libertatem. " When united
with freedom," i. e., in a free state.

Convictibus et hospitiis. " In common tables and acts of hospi-
tality." Compare our own phrase, " to keep open house." On the
hospitality of the German race, consult Du Cange, Gloss., s. v. Hos-
pitalitas ; and also Lindenblatt, " de hospitalitate et hospitio veterum."
Stettin, 1825, 4to. — Arcere tecto. " To exclude from one's roof." —
Pro fortuna quisque, &c. " Each one entertains (his guest) with a
carefully prepared banquet according to his means." Compare the
explanation of Jacobs : " Secundum conditionem suam et opes excipit
peregrinantes et ad domum suam accedentes^

Cum defecere. " When the means of entertainment have failed,"
i. e., have become exhausted. Supply epulce. — Monstrator hospitii
et comes. "Becomes the guide and companion to the hospitable
board of another," i. e., shows him another house where he may be
hospitably entertained, and accompanies him thither. — Pari human-
ilate. " With equal cordiality," i. e., with the same cordiality as if
they had been invited guests.

Abeunti, si quid poposcerit, &c. " It is a part of their customs to
give unto him who is departing whatever he may have asked, and
there is the same freedom of asking in return." — Sed nee data im-
putant, &c. " But they neither consider that they confer an obliga-
tion by what they give, nor do they hold themselves bound by what
they receive." Observe here the middle signification of obligantur.
The passive of many verbs in Latin has not only a properly pass-
ive meaning, but also a reflective one. In other words, a middle
voice is found not only in Greek, but in Latin also. (Zumpt, §
146.)

Victus inter hospites comis. " Their manner of living with their

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXI., XXII. 93

regular guests is marked by easy affability." After describing the
general hospitality of the Germans, and their reception of mere
strangers, Tacitus here speaks of their mode of receiving and en-
tertaining regularly-invited guests, or, in other words, those con-
nected with them by the ties of hospitality. ( Walther, ad loc.) Some
editors look upon this sentence as a mere gloss, or marginal note,
which has got inserted into the text. Others consider comis as
arising from a contracted mode of writing communis in the MSS.
Others take comis to mean, "without any suspicion of deceit or
treachery." Just as comiter is equivalent to sine dolo malo. The
explanation of Walther, however, as given above, removes every
difficulty.

CHAPTER XXII.

Quern plerumque in diem, &c. Compare chap. xv. : " Dediti som-
no ciboque^ — Lavantur. " They bathe." Middle force. Compare
note on obligantur in previous chapter. — Plurimum. " During the
greatest part of the year." Supply temporis. — Separates singulis
sedes, &c. Eating at separate tables is generally an indication of
voracity. Traces of it occur, also, in the Homeric poems.

Diem noctemque continuare, &c. " To keep drinking day and night,
without intermission, is disgraceful to no one." More literally, " to
make day and night continuous by drinking." The love of drinking
was common to the Germans, with their stem-relatives, the Per-
sians. (Compare Xen., Cyrop., viii., 8.) — Ut inter vinolentos. "As
is natural among a people addicted to drink." Rhenanus conjec-
tures violentos, because the Germans were without any wine ! But
consult the commencement of the succeeding chapter.

Sed et de reconciliandis, &c. Herodotus relates the same thing of
the Persians (L, 133 ; ii., 72), and Plutarch of the Greeks. {Sympos.,
viii., 9.) — Invicem. "Mutually." — Tamquam nullo magis tempore,
&c. " As if the breast at no time lies open more for the entertain-
ing of sincere thoughts, or warms more for the reception of heroic
ones." Various explanations have been given of the epithet sim-
plices in this passage. The best is that which makes it equivalent
to nudas, nonfucatas, i. e., " sincere, ingenuous, undisguised." (Con-
sult Walther, ad loc.)

Gens non astuta, nee callida, &c. " This nation, neither acute nor
crafty, still disclose the secrets of their breasts amid the freedom
of festivity." Observe here the force of adhuc, as rightly explained
by Passow. Tacitus is again contrasting the Germans with the
Romans, from the latter of whom the former, according to him,

94 NOTES ON THE GERMANJA. CHAP. XXII., XXIII.

have not yet learned the art of hiding the secret sentiments of the
bosom. Some, less correctly, render adhuc here " moreover,"
making it equivalent to insuper.

Omnium mens. " The plans and opinions of all." — Et salva utrius-
que temporis ratio est. " And the account of each time is kept
even." The expression salva ratio is properly used when the debtor
and creditor sides of an account balance one another. So here
Tacitus means to say, that by the method they pursued of delibera-
ting when they knew not how to dissemble, and deciding when there
was no chance of their erring, they kept the balance even ; so that
their rashness and caution mutually checked and restrained each
other.

The following remarks of Passow deserve to be inserted here.
In almost every instance, he observes, that is mentioned in this
chapter, the habits of the Romans were opposed to those of the
Germans. They used to rise before daylight, to play at ball or take
exercise of some kind before they washed or bathed ; at dinner to
use seats which were joined together ; by the laws of the Twelve
Tables they were forbidden to appear in arms in the city ; to drink
in the daytime was esteemed disgraceful ; and, lastly, mutual diffi-
dence and distrust prevailed at their banquets. (Passow, ad loc.)

CHAPTER XXIII.

Potui humor ex hordeo, &c. " For drink they have a liquor made
out of barley or wheat, changed by fermentation into a kind of re-
semblance to wine." The allusion here is to ale or beer. Malt
liquors appear to have been very commonly used# among many of
the ancient nations ; thus we find mention made of the (,vdoc of the
Egyptians (Herod., ii., 77) ; the Kovpju of the Egyptians, Spaniards,
and Britons (Dioscor., ii., 81) ; the cerevisia or cervisia of the Gauls,
&c. Most of the passages in ancient authors which relate to beer
or malt-drinks have been collected by Meibomius, " De Cervisiis Ve-
terum" (Gronov., Thes. Ant. Grcec, vol. ix.,p. 548, seqq.).—Corruptus.
This term does not necessarily imply being spoiled ; it would be ap-
plied to any natural production of which the character is completely
changed by art to adapt it to the use of man.

Proximi ripce et vinum mercantur. " Those who border on the
river's bank also buy wine." The reference is to the banks of the
Rhine and Danube, but more particularly the former. (Compare
chap, xvii.) According to Caesar (B. G. iv., 2), they allowed no wine
to be brought in among them. The first vines were introduced into
Germany by the Emperor Probus, as is thought. (Vopisc, c. 19.)

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXIII., XXIV. 95

Agrestia poma. " Wild fruit." Pomum is a very general term,
and includes any eatable fruit. — Recens fera. "Fresh venison."
Supply caro. Some, misled by the language of Pomponius Mela
(iii., 3) and Florus (iii., 13), think that raw flesh is meant. But
recens fera is nothing else than fera recens capta. — Lac concretum.
" Coagulated milk." Curds are meant, rather than cheese, although
the latter was likewise an article of German diet. Compare Caesar
(B. G., vi., 22) : " Major pars victus eorum in lacte, caseo, came con-
sistit" Some suppose butter to be here meant, but this was rather
the food of the higher classes. Compare Pliny (H. N., xxviii., 9) :
" E lacte fit butyrum, barbar arum gentium laudatissimus cibus, et qui
divites a plebe discernat."

Sine blandimentis. "Without any coaxings (of the appetite)."
The contrast between this and Roman luxury was striking enough.
(Compare Pliny, H. N., ix., 17.) — Temperantia. "Self-control."
— Ebrietati. "Their propensity to intoxication." — Haud minus
facile, &c. This is not to be understood as meaning that the Ger-
mans were easy to be conquered by arms, but merely that their own
vices proved formidable means of subjugation.

CHAPTER XXIY.

Nudi juvenes, quibus id ludicrum est, &c. " Naked youths, who
engage in this sport, throw somersets amid swords and frames
pointed at them." Observe that there is nothing in infestus itself
which ever implies hostility. Festus is only the old participle of
fsro, like gestus from gero. The following wood-cut, from the
Museo Borbonico (vol. vii., tav. 58), may throw light on the species
of diversion here referred to.

96 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXIV., XXV,

Ars decorem. " Skill (has produced) gracefulness of movement."
Decor is properly a poetical word, and was probably not employed
in prose until after the Augustan age. It is especially frequent in
Quintilian. — Non in qucestum tamen, aut mercedem. " (They do) not,
however, (do this) as a trade, or for hire." Supply hocfaciunt. The
case was far different with the Romans, in both their scenic and
circensian celebrations.— Pretium. " The recompense."

Aleam (quod mirere), &c. Although the Romans were much ad-
dicted to gambling (see Juvenal, i., 88 ; viii., 10 ; xi., 174), yet it
was esteemed disreputable, and was forbidden by the laws, except
daring the Saturnalia. (Cic, Phil, ii., 23; Hor., Od., iii., 24, 58.)

Quamvis.juvenior. The more usual form is junior ; still, however,
the more regularly constructed juvenior is defended in the present
passage and elsewhere by good MSS. (Consult Gierig, ad Plin.,
Epist., iv., 8, 5.) — Ea est in re prava pervicacia. " Such is their ob-
stinate perseverance in a bad practice." A scholiast on Horace
(Epod., xviii., 14) explains the term pervicacia (in accordance with
its derivation from per and vinco) as applicable, properly, to a person
wTho maintains a contest until he gets the victory : "pervicaces sunt,
qui in aliquo certamine ad vincendum per sever ant." (Dilthey, ad loc.)

Ipsi fidem vocant. The good faith of the ancient Germans in keep-
ing their promises was proverbial. (Compare Ann., xiii., 54.) — Tra-
dunt. " They hand over to others," i. e., they rid themselves of.

CHAPTER XXV.

Discriptis per familiam ministeriis . " In services distributed
throughout the household." The true reading here is undoubtedly
discriptis, which, though of frequent occurrence in the MSS., is
commonly altered in the editions to descriptis. The derivation of
this latter form, however, does not lead to the idea of distribution,
since describere is merely " to mark out, to copy," &e.

Non in nostrum morem. The Romans went to a very great length
in appointing different slaves to superintend the various depart-
ments of their domestic economy. Among the wealthy, in later
times, there was scarcely a single household duty that was not al-
lotted to some particular slave, who attended to that and nothing
else. Lists of these slaves may be seen in Dilthey {ad loc), but
more particularly in Blair, " Inquiry into the State of Slavery among
the Romans," p. 131, seqq.

Quisque. "Each slave." The slaves here meant, as appears
from what follows, were a kind o€ rustic bondsmen, and their con-

N0TE3 ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP, XXV. 97

dition was the same as that of the vassals, or serfs, who a few cen-
turies ago made up the great body of the people in every country
in Europe. They were attached to the soil, and went with it like
the Roman coloni, and hence we see why each had an abode (sedes)
of his own, and regulated his own household affairs (suos penates).
The Germans, at a later period, imitating the Romans, had slaves
of inferior condition, to whom the name of slave became appropri-
ated ; while those in the state of rural vassalage were called Liden
(Liti or Litones). (Consult Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer, p.
300, seqq.)

Ut colono. " As upon a tenant," i. e., as upon one of those whom
we Romans term coloni. The term colonus is here employed in the
sense which it had during the later imperial period. The coloni paid
a certain yearly rent for the land on which they lived, and were at-
tached to the soil (gleba adscripti), from which, as a general rule,
they could not be separated. (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v. Pradium.)
— Et servus hactenus paret. " And the slave thus far obeys," i. e,t
the slave is not bound to render any other services.

Cetera domus officio,, &c. "The other, (which are) household
duties, his own wife and children discharge." Domus here refers
to the house of the master, and not, as Passow erroneously supposes,
to that of the slave. The Germans did not employ slaves at this
period in household duties, but used for this purpose the services of
their own wives and children. (Orelli, ad loc.) Observe, moreover,
the peculiar employment of cetera in the present passage, and com-
pare the explanation of Walther, " cetera officia, scilicet domus official

Verberare servum, &c. Tacitus opposes this to the cruelty of
masters among the Romans. Various laws were enacted by Ser-
vius Tullius, Augustus, Hadrian, and others, to check the cruelty
of the Romans toward their slaves. (Consult Seneca, de Ira, iii.,
40 ; Id., de Clem., I, 18 ; Id., Epist., 46, 47 ; Plin., H. N., ix., 23 ;
Juvenal, vi., 219 ; Heyne, Opusc, vol. iii., p. 189.)

Non disciplina et severitate, &c. " Not in the way of chastise-
ment, and from any severe infliction of the same, but from the im-
pulse of the moment, and anger (in particular, as the exciting
cause)." We must be careful not to regard this as a mere hendi-
adys for disciplines severitate and impetu irce. It is, in reality, a
much stronger form of expression. Compare the remarks of Bot-
ticher on the so-called figure Bv 6ia Svoiv in Tacitus, p. xlvi.— Nisi
quod impune. " Except that they do it with impunity," i. e., kill a
slave with impunity. A private enemy could not be slain with
impunity, since a tine (Wergeld) was affixed to homicide; but a

98 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXV.

man might kill his own slave without any punishment. If, however,
he killed another person's slave, he was obliged to pay his price to
the owner. (Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt., p. 289.)

Libertini non multum supra servos sunt. Among the Franks, the
freedmen seldom attained to the full right of those who were free-
born. They could not inherit property, or give testimony against
free-born men. If a freedman, moreover, died without children, his
property went to the treasury, as appears from the Ripuarian code.
(Tit., lvii., 1.4.) All the editions before that of Ernesti have Liber ti
here, for which that editor correctly substituted Libertini, in accord-
ance with the strict distinction between the two terms. (Compare
Cic., in Verr., i., 47.) Walther, Dilthey, and others oppose the
change, but on very unsatisfactory grounds. The reference is not
to the freedmen of particular masters or families, but to freedmen
considered as a class. Hence the employment of the term libertini
immediately after (impares libertini), and which confirms Ernesti's
emendation.

Raro aliquod momentum in domo. "They rarely possess any
^ weight in the family." Supply habent. — Qua regnantur. " Which
are governed by kings." Literally, " which are reigned over."
Such, for example, were the Gotones, mentioned in chapter xliii.,
and the Suiones in chapter xliv. Unto a Roman, after the experi-
ence afforded by a Nero and a Domitian, the terms monarchy and
despotism had become almost synonymous. — This employment of
regno in the passive voice departs from common usage, since in the
active voice it is used intransitively. Similar instances, however,
occur in other parts of Tacitus ; as, for example, in chapter xliii. of
the present treatise ; in Ann., xiii., 54 ; and in Hist., i., 16. So, also,
in Pliny, H. N., vi., 23. (Compare Drakenborch, ad Liv., i., 17, 3,
and Bbtticher, Lex. Tac., p. 17.)

Ibi enim et super ingenuos, &c. A state of things exactly parallel
to this existed among the Romans during the reigns of some of the
worst of their emperors, when the pride of the nobility was so much
( lowered by the power and insolence to which freedmen attained by
making themselves subservient to the vices of the prince. — Apud
ceteros impares libertini, &c. " Among the rest, the subordinate con-
dition of the freedmen is a proof of the value of freedom," i. e., the
fact that freedmen are held in such light estimation is a proof of the
value set upon freedom and the rights of freemen.

XOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVI. 99

CHAPTER XXVI.

Fenus agitare, &c. " To lend out money upon interest, and to
increase it by means of usurious practices, is unknown (among
them)." The expression in usuras is a poetic one for usuris ox per
vsuras. Commentators make a great difficulty with this simple
passage. Their various opinions may be seen stated by "Weishaupt,
p. 379. One of the worst of these is that advanced by Walther,
who makes fenus have here the meaning merely of " capital," a
signification which, as Freund correctly remarks, is extremely rare.
Tacitus is silently comparing German with Roman manners. At
Rome the most exorbitant usury was practiced, whereas the Ger-
mans are here described as not only strangers to usurious exactions,
but even to the lending out of money on interest at all.

Ideoque magis servatur, &c. " And, therefore, the abstaining from
this practice is more effectually observed than if the practice itself
had been forbidden by law." A remarkable instance of conciseness
in the original, which can not be imitated in a translation. The ref-
erence to what precedes is rather a mental than a grammatical one,
and we must, therefore, supply with servatur some such expression
as abstinentia a fenore agitando. On this usage of language, consult
the remarks of Perizonius, ad Sanct. Minerv., iv., 8, note v. Some
commentators give servatur here the meaning of " is provided
against," " is avoided," without any ellipsis ; but for this there is
no authority. — Lege vetitum esset. Usury was forbidden at Rome,
though in vain, by the laws of the Twelve Tables, and by various
enactments made by Licinius, Genucius, Sempronius, Julius Caesar,
and others. The Germans were free from it, on account of their
little acquaintance with moneyed transactions.

Agri, pro numero cultorum, &c. " The lands are occupied by
whole communities in turn, according to the number of persons to
till them." The true reading here is undoubtedly in vices, and the
meaning of the passage is, that the same territories were occupied
by different tribes or communities in turn, to a greater or less ex-
tent, according to the number of persons to till them. The best
commentary on Tacitus here is to be found in the account given by
Caesar of the Suevi (B. G., iv., 1). Some commentators, however,
disregarding the authority of Caesar, read vicis for in vices, and think
that the Germans did not live in the manner of nomad tribes to such
a degree as is commonly supposed ; but that individuals had pos-
sessions of their own, which they retained, without any of the ex-

100 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVI., XXVII.

changes mentioned above. This view of the subject, however,
wants confirmation in every respect.

Arva per annos mutant, &c. " They change the arable lands every
year, and a portion of ground remains over and above (each di-
vision)," i. e., there is always a portion of ground that remains un-
divided. This was allowed to lie fallow until new cultivators took
possession of it the ensuing year. There was no danger, therefore,
of the land's becoming exhausted by repeated sowings on the part
of each successive body of settlers, since all the land was not put
under culture at any one time. They who adopt the reading vicis,
however, understand the sentence to mean that, instead of sowing
the same land every year, they change about, and suffer some plots
to lie fallow, while others are ploughed.

Nee enim cum ubertate, &c. " Nor, indeed, do they attempt to vie
in their exertions with the fertility and extent of the soil," i. e., they
do not pretend to bestow on the culture of the ground a degree of
labor that may equal its fertility and extent. This, it will be per-
ceived, serves particularly to explain the expression superest ager,
which precedes. — Sola terrce seges imperatur. " A crop of corn is
alone demanded of the earth, i. e., they merely cultivate the ground
for a harvest of grain, paying no attention to fruit-trees, the vine, &c.

Species. "Seasons." — Intellectual ac vocabula habent. " Are
known and have names." The employment of the noun intellectus
here indicates the silver age of Latinity, and intellectum habent is to
be regarded as equivalent to intelliguntur, i. e., nota sunt. — Auctumni
perinde nomen, &c. Particularly the grape and olive. Tacitus was
probably mistaken in saying that they had no name for this season.
Herbst, or herbist (whence the English term harvest), appears to have
been its name. In Eginhart's Life of Charlemagne (c. 29) the
month of November is called Herbist-monat.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Funerum nulla ambitio. " There is no parade about their funer-
als." Among the Romans it was directly the reverse. (Compare
Seneca, de Brev. Vit., 20 ; Plin., H. N., xii., 41 ; Tac, Ann., hi., 2.)
Among the Gauls, also, funeral ceremonies were " magnifica et sum-
tuosa." (Qces., B. G., vi., 19.— Dilthey, ad h. I.) — Certis lignis ere-
mentur. " Be reduced to ashes by means of particular kinds of
wood," i. e., those kinds of wood that were set apart for this purpose
by law or custom. The bodies of the dead were generally burned
among the ancient Germans, and this custom continued even after

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVII. 101

the introduction of Christianity, until forbidden under pain of capi-
tal punishment by Charlemagne. (Mon. Paderborn., p. 302.) The
ashes were preserved in funeral urns, which were deposited in
tombs, and have often been dug up in modern times. (Consult Pauli,
11 Romische und Teutsche Alterth. am Rhein." Maynz, 1821 ; and
Busching, " Die heidnischen Alterthumer Schlesiens," 1821, &c.)

Struem rogi. "The heap of the funeral pile," i. e., the wood
heaped up or arranged into the form of a funeral pile. — Nee vestibus,
nee odoribus. Another opposition to Roman custom's. Among the
Romans, when the flames of the pile began to rise, various perfumes
were thrown into the fire, and also cups of oil, ornaments, vest-
ments, dishes of food, and other things which were supposed to be
agreeable to the deceased. (Virg., Mn., vi., 225 ; Stat., Theb., vi.,
126 ; Lucan, ix., 175.)

Sua cuique anna, &c. The deceased was supposed to follow the
same occupations after death as in life. Similar customs on the
part of the natives of India, and also the Scythians, Getse, Thracians,
and Gauls, are alluded to by Herod., iv., 71 ; Cas., B. G., vi., 19 ;
Pomp. Mel, ii., 2 ; Vol. Max., ii., 1 ; Solin., 10, &c. On opening
the tomb of one of the old Frank kings, a horse-shoe was found, the
earliest specimen of the kind known. — Sepulcrum cespes erigit. " A
mound of turf forms the elevation-of the tomb," i. e., the tomb is a
mound of turf. Compare, as regards the Latinity of this passage,
the language of Seneca (Ep., 8) : u Hanc domum utrum cespes erexerit,
an xarius lapis." Mounds, or, as they are also called, barrows (in
Latin, tumuli), and in which the ashes of the dead were deposited,
are of frequent occurrence in Germany, Britain, and other countries.

Monumentorum arduum et operosum honorem, &c. " They contemn
the lofty and laborious honor of monumental structures, as burden-
some to the dead." Compare the version of Botticher : " Der Denk-
m'dler hochragende, miihevolle Ehre verschmahen sie." Tacitus had in
view the splendid mausoleum of Augustus, as well as the other lofty
and expensive funeral structures in the vicinity of the Roman capi-
tal. He does not, however, appear to have been aware of the ex-
istence of the celebrated Hunenbetten (t. e., mortuorum lecti) in Ger-
many. Consult Klemm, Germ. Alterth., p. 102, and the representa-
tions given of these tombs in plate vi. of that work.

Lugere. " To bewail the loss of friends." Lugeo and luctus
always refer to mourning for the dead. (Compare Doderlein, Lat.
Syn., iii , p. 237.) — Singularum gentium. " Of individual tribes."
In enumerating the different tribes of Germany, Tacitus follows this
order : In chapter xxviii. he speaks of those who did not property

102 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVII., XXVIII.

belong to Germany ; in chapters xxix. and xxxiv., of those who in-
habited the banks of the Rhine, toward the west ; in chapters xxxv.
and xxxvii., of those who dwelt on the banks of the Rhine, toward
the north ; in chapters xxxviii. and xli. we have the members of
the Suevic league commemorated ; in chapters xlii. and xliii., those
who dwelt along the Danube ; in chapters xliv. and xlv., those who
bordered on the Northern Ocean ; and, in chapter xlvi., those who
dwelt beyond the ocean, partly fabulous people.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Validiores olim Gallorum, &c. " The deified Julius, the highest
of authorities, relates, that the affairs of the Gauls were formerly in
a more powerful condition than those of the Germans," i. e., that
the Gauls were formerly the more powerful people. The reference
here is to the Sixth Book of Caesar's Gallic Commentaries (cap.
24). — Eoque credibile est, &c. Compare Cces., B. G., vi., 24.

Quantulum enim amnis obstabat. " For how small an obstacle did
a river oppose." The Rhine, as is well known, has never been a
limit to the movements of tribes and communities. — Promiscuas ad-
huc, &c. " As yet lying in common, and divided off by no power
of monarchies," i. e., and unappropriated by any powerful monar-
chies. Some MSS. have diversas, which forms no bad reading, di-
ver si being used in the sense of separated in .Ann., xv., 56.

Igitur. For a similar use of igitur, at the beginning of a sen-
tence, see Vit. Agr., c. 13. — Hercyniam silvam. Consult Geograph-
ical Index, s. v. — Mcenum. The Mcenus, otherwise written Maenus,
is now the River Main. The intermediate forms of the name are
the Mohin and Moin. (Bischoff und Moller, Worterb. der Geogr., p.
718.) — Ulteriora Boii. For an account of the once powerful tribe of
the Boii, consult Geographical Index, s. v. Tacitus makes them to
have been of Gallic origin, but they were, more probably, a Ger-
manic race. Von Hammer, who is an advocate for the Oriental
origin of the name Germani (Germanen), traces that of the Boii to
the Persian " Boia." (Ferhengi Schuuri, B., 221, V. — Kruse, Archiv.,
&c, Heft ii., p. 128.)

Boiemi nomen. " The name of Boiemum." Boiemum, or Boihe-
mum, probably means, "the home of the Boii" (heim, heimath).
Some, however, as, for example, Wersebe, think that by Boiemum
is meant what Caesar calls " oppidum Boiorum" (B. G., vii., 9) in
Gallia, now Beaujolois. — Signijicatque loci veterem memoriam. "And
implies a long-standing reminiscence of the original settlement." —

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVIII. 103

Quamvis mutatis cultoribus. Observe that quamvis is here for quam-
quam, a usage occurring only in the later prose writers. (Gruber,
ad loc.)

Sed utrum Aravisci, &c. Tacitus here calls the Osi a German
nation, whereas in chapter xliii. he remarks, that their use of the
Pannonian tongue proves them to be not Germans. Some editors
think that in the present passage their settlements only are referred
to, but the contradiction is too manifest to be remedied in this way.
Passow regards Germanorum natione as an interpolation, which is,
probably, the true opinion, though rejected by Walther and others.
- — Eadem utriusque ripce bona malaque erant. " There were the same
advantages and disadvantages on both sides of the stream," i. e,,
there was the same freedom and the same poverty. The river
meant is the Danube.

Treveri ct Nervii. Consult Geographical Index, s. v. — Circa ad-
fcctationem Germanicce, originis. " As regards an eager striving after
a German origin." Compare the explanation of Freund (Worterb.,
s. v.), "in dem Streben, fur Germancn zu gelt en." We have here
two specimens of the Latinity of the silver age, namely, the em-
ployment of circa in the sense of quod attinet ad, and the use of the
noun adfectatio. (Compare Botticher, Lex. Tac, p. 30, 86.) — A sinu!-
itudine et inertia Gallorum separentur. " They can separate them-
selves from all resemblance unto, as well as from the indolence that
is characteristic of the Gauls," i. e., can distinguish themselves from
the Gauls, whom they resemble in person and in indolence. Ob-
serve the middle force of separentur.

Vangiones, Triboci, Kemetes. Consult Geographical Index. — Ne
Ubii quidem, &c. The Ubii were the allies of Caesar against the
Suevi, and were afterward transported to the left bank of the Rhine
by Agrippa (B.C. 3S). By origine is meant their German origin,
before they became a colony ; since it was hardly likely that a people
who had been made a colony of by the Romans, and placed in a post
of trust, as Tacitus says, ut arcerent, non ut custodirentur, should
blush for this honor. Some commentators, however, have referred
origine to Agrippina. (Consult Lipsius, ad loc.)

Conditoris sui nomine. We have no direct evidence as to who
founded the colony in question. The town (now Cologne) was
called Colonia Agrippina, or Agrippinensis, the first of which names
would mean, " the Colony of Agrippa," and the second, " the Colony
of Agrippina." (Rasche, Lex. Rei Num., vol. ii., col. 6S1 ; Orclli,
Inscript. Lat., 3381.) Now, Agrippa was engaged in this quarter on
two occasions ; while, on the other hand, Agrippina, the daughter

104 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXV1IL, XXIX.

of Germanicus, and granddaughter of Agrippa, was born in this
place. It is probable, therefore, that the colony was originally
founded by Agrippa, and was called Colonia Agrippina merely, until
Agrippina, after her union with Claudius, sent out her own colony,
of which Tacitus elsewhere makes mention (Ann., xii., 27), and the
object of which, in all likelihood, was to strengthen the first. The
name Colonia Agrippinensis began after this, it would seem, to be
employed in common with the other. (Compare Plin., H. N., iv., 17.)
Experimento fidei. " From trial (having been made) of their fidel-
ity," i. e., in consequence of their tried fidelity. Observe that ex-
perimento is here the ablative. — Tit arcerent, non ut custodirentur.
" To restrain (others), not to be guarded (themselves)," i. e., to keep
their own countrymen in check, and prevent them from crossing
over into the Roman territories ; not placed there themselves to
be watched by the Romans.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Batavi. The Batavi were the inhabitants of South Holland and
some adjacent parts. They occupied the district between the Va-
halis ( Waal) and Mosa (Meuse), above their junction ; and also the
island formed by the northern arm of the Rhine (or Rhine of Leyden),
the Vahalis and Mosa after their junction, and the ocean, which
island now constitutes part of South Holland. They seem, also,
from the language of the text, to have occupied a small tract on the
banks of the Rhine, not included in the insula Batavorum, as it is
called by Csesar (B. G., iv., 10). Compare, on this whole subject,
the account given by Tacitus (Hist., iv., 12), and also Geographical
Index.

Ripa. When ripa is used alone, in speaking of the Rhine, it
generally means, as in the present instance, the left bank of the
stream. — Seditione domestica. Compare Hist., iv., 12. The time
when this happened is not given. Csesar found them already es-
tablished in their new seats. — In quibus pars Romani imperii fierent.
This marks, of course, the consequence, not the intent.

Contemnuntur. As referring to the degradation connected with
the payment of tribute.— Nee publicanus adterit. "Nor does any
farmer of the revenue oppress them." The publicani, or farmers of
the revenue, were principally members of the equestrian order.
They did not themselves, however, take any part in the actual levy-
ing or collecting of the taxes in the provinces ; this part of the
business was performed by an inferior class of men. These in*

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXIX. 105

ferior officers were notorious for their insolence and oppression,
and it is to such that allusion is made in the present instance. —
Adterit. A peculiarly appropriate term. The verb adterere denotes,
properly, "to wear away by dint of rubbing," and is here very fitly
applied to the waste of private substance occasioned by repeated
and ruinous exactions.

Bellis reservantur. The Batavi were styled Friends and Brothers
of the Roman People, as the following inscription in Junius Batav.,
p. 34, indicates : " Gens Batavorum Amici et Fratres Romani Imperii ;"
and also the following in Grater, fol. 72, N. 9 : " Civ. Batavi Fratres
et Amici P. J?."

Mattiacorum gens. The Mattiaci, like the Batavi, probably a
branch of the Catti, dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, in Wet-
terau and Hesse Darmstadt, the tract possessed by the Ubii before
they crossed the Rhine, between the Mcenus (Main) and Logana
(Lahri). (Consult Geographical Index.) — Ultra Rhenum. The
Rhine was always regarded as the natural line of division between
the Roman and German sway. — Ita sede jinibusque in sua ripa, &c.
" Thus, as regards settlement and borders, they live on their own
bank (of the stream) ; in sentiment and attachment they act with
us." Observe the zeugma in agunt. There is nothing synonymous
here, as some suppose, in mente and animo. By mens is here meant
cogitatio ; by animus, on the other hand, voluntas.

Nisi quod ipso adhuc, &c. " Except that, from the very nature of
their soil and climate, they still retain more spirit." They are more
warlike than the Batavi, in consequence of their occupying a mount-
ainous country, and living under a more rigorous climate. Botti-
cher gives adhuc in this passage the meaning of insuper or prceterea
(Lex. Tacit., p. 33) ; but it is better to regard it, with Gruber, as a
particle of time.

Decumates agros. " The tithe-lands." This is not a proper name
belonging to any tribe or place ; but was applied to lands conquered
by the Romans, in which, for the sake of security, that no hostile
tribes might dwell close to their borders, they allowed Gauls or
Roman soldiers to settle, who were charged with the payment of
a tithe to the Romans. The Romans very commonly exacted a
tithe from those who occupied the public lands : the greater part of
Sicily was taxed in this way. For more particulars respecting the
Decumates Agri, consult Geographical Index.

Dubicz possessionis. At first these lands lay beyond the Roman
boundary, and were unprotected against the incursions of the hostile
Germans. — Limite acto, &c. " A boundary line being run, and for-

106 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXX.

tified posts being pushed forward, they are (now) regarded as a nook
of the empire, and a part of the (Roman) province (in this quarter)."
The province referred to was that of Germania Cisrhenana, or of
Raetia.

CHAPTER XXX.

Ultra hos. Tacitus means, beyond the tribes already mentioned
as dwelling on or near the Rhine ; not those occupying the Decu-
mates agri. — Catti initium sedis, &c. "The Catti make the first
rude beginning of their settlements from the Hercynian Forest."
Mannert refers this to a chain of the Harz Mountains, running north
from the Main for a considerable distance. (Geogr., vol. hi., p. 183.)
Observe the peculiar force of the expression initium inchoant, which
is by no means pleonastic, as many suppose. The verb inchoare
strictly refers to the first sketch or rude outline of any work, or to
the first rude commencement of any thing, and is here peculiarly
apposite. (Compare Cic, de Or., i., 2, 5 : " Qua adolescentulis nobis
ex commentariolis nostris inchoata ac rudia exciderunt.") The territory
of the Catti comprehended that of the modern Hessians, Fulda, the
earldoms of Hanau and Isenburg, so much of Franconia as lies north,
of the Main, to the mouth of the Saale, part of Nassau, and the east-
ern portion of the Duchy of Westphalia. (Consult Geographical
Index.)

Effusis. " Level." — In quas Germania patescit. " Into which
Germany spreads itself." — Durant siquidem colles, &c. " Since hills
continue on (here) in a long range, and (then) gradually become
scattered." Observe the beautiful figure in durant, and compare
the remarks of Bdtticher, Lex. Tac, p. 165. Passow, Hess, Dilthey,
and others place a colon after durant, thus connecting it with what
piecedes, and making civitates its subject, " as the other states en-
dure to dwell in." In the succeeding clause they read siquidem
colles paullatim rarescunt. This, however, is far inferior. — Siquidem,
The position of this word, as the second in the sentence, is in ac-
cordance with the habit of transposition in which Tacitus so fre-
quently indulges. (Compare Wernike, de Elocutione Taciti ; and
Gerlach, ad loc.) The proper place of siquidem would be the first in
the sentence.

Et Cattos suos, &c. " And the Hercynian Forest both escorts and
sets down its own Catti. " A bold and lively image. When a mag-
istrate left Rome to take command of a province, it was usual for
his friends to escort him part of the way : the term used to express

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXX. 107

this was prosequi. So, in the present case, the settlements of the
Catti lie along a continuous range of hills, until the ridge sinks down
and the chain is broken. It then bends to the east and leaves the
Catti. In the bold and vigorous language of Tacitus, the hills are
said to escort the Catti, and to set them down at length in the lower
grounds, when the ridge sinks and the hills turn away. Observe,
moreover, the peculiar and striking beauty of the possessive suos,
as denoting intimate companionship.

Duriora corpora, &c. " Hardier frames (than ordinary), compact
limbs." — Ut inter Germanos. "As far as (we may expect this)
among Germans." More freely, " considering they are Germans."
The Germans were regarded by the Romans as generally deficient
in the qualities to which Tacitus here alludes. The Romans, how-
ever, mistook mere want of culture for inferiority of intellect. Com-
pare the remarks of Luden, Gesch. der Deutschen, i., p. 147.

Praponere electos. "To place over themselves chosen leaders."
The Catti choose able leaders to command their armies when going
forth to war ; whereas, among the other Germans, that one becomes
a leader who is conspicuous for valor among the foremost combat-
ants. (Compare ch. vii.) The infinitive in this clause and in those
that follow is very abrupt, but at the same time very characteristic
of Tacitus. It is not, of course, the historical infinitive, since the
present would be required here, not the imperfect. Neither is there
an ellipsis of solent, as Jacobs supposes. The infinitives in question
depend, in fact, on what immediately precedes, each clause being
epexegetical of multum rationis ac sollertice.

Audire. " To obey." — Nosse. " To ke-ep." — Jntelligere occasio-
nes. " To know how to avail themselves of fitting opportunities."
(Compare Agric, 14, 18, 27.) — Differre impetus. "To restrain im-
petuous movements." The other Germans were wont to rush
rashly on the foe ; the Catti, on the contrary, acted with circum-
spection and judgment, and delayed an attack wherever such delay
seemed to promise good results. — Disponere diem, vallare noctem.
" To assign to each part of the day its proper duty, to fortify them-
selves during the night." Literally, " to distribute the day, to en-
trench the night." Grammarians rank this form of expression
under the Prosopopceia of Time. (Compare the remarks of Botti-
cher, p. lv.)

Nee nisi Romance discipline concessum. In the age of Tacitus, the
wars carried on by the Romans were only against undisciplined
barbarians ; so that order and discipline might, with some reason,
be claimed as peculiar to the Romans. (Dilthey, ad loc.) We have

108 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXX., XXXI.

given here Romanes, with Orelli, Walch, Selling, and others. The
common reading is nee nisi ratione disciplince concessum, " nor con-
ceded save by the steady operation of discipline," i. e., and only a
consequence of discipline.

Ferramentis. " With iron tools," i. e., axes, spades, pickaxes, &c.
— Copiis. " Provisions." — Alios ad proelium ire videas. " You may
see others going forth merely to a single battle." Other nations of
the Germans think only of the first battle ; the Catti, on the con-
trary, adopt a regular plan of operations for an entire campaign, and
hence excursions and skirmishes {fortuitce pugnce) are of rare oc-
currence among them.

Cito cedere. " Quickly to lose one." Literally, " quickly to re-
tire (from one)." This is well exemplified by the case of the an-
cient Parthians and modern Cossacks. — Velocitas juxta formidinem,
&c. " Rapid movements border upon fear, deliberate ones are more
akin to steady valor." The meaning of the whole passage is this :
the strength of the Catti consisting in infantry, they can not engage
to any great extent in equestrian encounters, &c., but then there is
an advantage connected with such a state of things, since eques-
trian conflicts are uncertain, and marked by sudden changes of
fortune, whereas the steady movements of infantry are more gen-
erally crowned with lasting success.

CHAPTER XXXI.

Et aliis Germdnorum populis, &c. " What among other tribes of
the Germans is usually done through rare and individual daring,
among the Catti has become a matter of common consent," i. e.,
has become a regular and received custom. Literally, "through
rare and private daring on the part of each individual." — Vertit.
For conversum est. Many transitive verbs, especially such as ex-
press motion, are used either intransitively or for passives. The
common explanation of this has been to supply the personal pronoun
or some substantive ; but this is both unfounded and unnecessary.
(Consult Sanct. Minerv., iii., 2, 1 ; Kiihner, G. G., § 360, ed Jelf ;
Bentley, ad Horat., Carm., iv., 10, 5.)

Votivum olligatumque virtnti. " The result of a vow, and by
which they have bound themselves to a life of daring." — Revelant
frontem. "They unveil the countenance," i. e., by cutting their
hair and shaving their beard. This custom stands in singular op-
position to the ordinary usage among the Germans of regarding

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXI., XXXII. 109

long hair as a badge of valor and honorable distinction, and the loss
of it as the reverse. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Pretia nascendi ret-
tulisse. "Have paid the debt of their birth," i. e., the debt they
owed to their country and parents for having been born.

Squalor. " Their squalid disguise." — Fortissimus quisqueferreum,
&c. It was very common in the middle ages for those who were
under a vow of penance to wear an iron ring till they had fulfilled
it. — Ignominiosum id genti. " It is a mark of ignominy with that na-
tion." Literally, " unto the nation." The iron ring seems to have
been a badge of slavery. Various attempts have been made to alter
the text here, but, if we make the clause parenthetical, every diffi-
culty disappears. — Plurimis Cattorum, &c. " This condition of
visage possesses lasting charms for very many of the Catti," i. e.,
they retain this appearance even after they have slain an enemy, as
though they were bound by a vow from which they could only be
released by death. — Jamque canent insignes. " And at last they
grow hoary under the mark."

Hcbc prima semper acies visu torva. " These always form the front
line, stern of aspect." We have adopted torva here, with the Bipont
editor, Oberlin, Bekker, and others. The ordinary reading is nova,
which is inconsistent with wThat is given in the next sentence as
the reason ; and, therefore, some editors, w7ho retain nova, think that
for nam we should read quamquam, which would be written in the
MSS. q'q'm, from which, according to them, nam may have arisen.
This, however, would be a desperate expedient. The change of
nova to torva is much neater, and is in full accordance, also, with the
vultu mitiore of the subsequent sentence. — Donee exsanguis senectus,
&c. "Until exhausted old age renders them unequal to so rigorous
a career of valor."

CHAPTER XXXII.

Certum jam alveo. "Now settled in its channel." Literally,
" now certain (i. e., to be relied upon) in wThat relates to the bed of
the river." The reference is to the quarter where the stream is
now confined within fixed limits, and does not form so many
branches and lakes as in the country of the Batavi. — Usipii ac
Tencteri. These two tribes generally go together in geography and
history. They frequently changed their settlements. (Consult
Geographical Index.) — Super solitum bellorum decus. "In addition
to the warlike reputation usual (with the German race)." Supply
ceteris Germanis after solitum. — Equestris disciplines arte prcecdlunU

110 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXII., XXXIII.

Compare the account given by Caesar of the superiority of the Ger-
man cavalry. (B. G., iv., 2, 11, 12, 16.)

Sic instituere major es, &c. " Their forefathers thus established,
posterity imitate, the custom." — Hcec juvenum cemulatio. " This is
the point of emulation among the youth." — Inter familiam et penates.
"Along with the household and household gods." By familia is
here meant the dwelling and all things connected with it, furniture,
slaves, &c. Compare Weishaupt, ad loc. — Excipit. "Inherits
(them)." Literally, " receives them," i. e., by inheritance ; so that
excipit is here equivalent to hceredilate accipit, and there is an ellipsis
of equos. — Sed prout ferox hello et melior. "But according as he is
fierce in war, and superior (in this respect to the rest)." There is
no tautology here, as some suppose. Compare the explanation of
Walther : " Excipit equos ferox bello inter non feroces : inter feroces
excipit ferocior sive melior."

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Bructeri Chamavos et Angrivarios. As regards these sev-
eral tribes, consult Geographical Index. — Occurrebant. "Met the
view." Supply oculis or euntibus, and compare Columella, ii., 2,
where the full form is given : " oculis ejus tot paludes, tot etiam campi
salinarum occurrerent." — Penitus excisis. Tacitus is most probably
mistaken in asserting that the Bructeri were entirely extirpated ;
for we find the Roman commander, Spurinna, engaged with them in
the reign of Trajan ; and in later times they appear as a powerful
people among the Franks. Their name was finally lost when they
were overpowered by the Saxons. It appears for the last time in
a letter of Pope Gregory III., about the year 720, when they are
called Borthari.

Nam ne spectaculo quidem, &c. " For they did not begrudge us
even in the matter of allowing us to be spectators of a battle." Ob-
serve that spectaculo is here in the ablative, and that invidere gov-
erns a dative of the person. If the meaning had been, " for they
did not begrudge us even the spectacle of a battle," the accusative,
spectaculum, would have been employed. — Oblectationi oculisque.
"For our entertainment, and the mere pleasure of the spectacle."
Not equivalent merely to oblectationi oculorum, by a so-called hen-
diadys, but a much stronger form of expression. (Compare the re-
marks of Botticher, p. xlvi.) The conflict alluded to in the text is
supposed to have taken place near the Canal of Drusus (Fossa Dru-
siana), from which quarter the Roman garrison could be spectators

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXIII., XXXIV. Ill

of it, and the time to have been the first year of the reign of Trajan.
(Broticr, ad loc.)

Maneat, quceso, duretque, &c. " May, I entreat, if not an affection
for us, yet at least a feeling of animosity against each other remain
and continue strongly seated in the nations," i. e., remain and long
continue to remain. Observe that quczso has properly an ellipsis of
deos, and compare Terent. Andr., iii., 2, 7. Observe, moreover, that
duret rises in strength above maneat. — Urgentibus imperii fatis.
" While the fate of the empire is (thus) urgent," i. e., in the present
critical condition of the empire. As this treatise was written in
the reign of Trajan, when the affairs of the Romans appeared un-
usually prosperous, some critics have imagined that Tacitus wrote
vigentibus, "flourishing," instead of urgentibus. But it is sufficiently
evident, from other passages, that the causes which were operating
gradually, but surely, to the destruction of the Roman Empire, did
not escape the penetration of Tacitus, even when disguised by the
most flattering appearances. The common reading, therefore, must
stand. (Aikin, ad loc.) — Hostium. " On the part of our foes "

CHAPTER XXXIV. *

A tergo cludunt. " Shut in from behind," i. e., on the east. — DuU
gibini. This tribe belonged to the race of the Cherusci, and were
apparently driven eastward by the same irruption of the Cauci as
that which expelled the Angrivarii. (Consult Geographical Index.)
— Chasuari. These were also a tribe of the Cherusci, and were
conquered by Tiberius and Germanicus. (Consult Geographical
Index.) — Aliaque gentes. The Ansibarii, Tubantes, Turonii, Ner-
tereani, Danduti, Marvingi, &c. (Dilthey, ad loc.) Of these na-
tions little, if any thing, is known. The last four are named by
Ptolemy alone. — Frisii. The Frisii majores dwelt in what is now
West Friesland and Groningen ; the Frisii minores in Oberyssel,
Gelders, Utrecht, and the greater part of the province of Holland.
(Consult Geographical Index.)

Rheno pratexuntur. " Are bordered in front by the Rhine," i. e.f
the settlements of both stretch along the Rhine. — Immensos lacus.
Anciently this country was covered by large lakes, which were made
still larger by frequent inundations of the sea. Since the inunda-
tion, however, of 1569, which submerged almost all Friesland, the
Zuydcr Zee has taken the place of most of them. — Romanis classibus
navigatos. (Compare Ann., i., 70; ii.9 5.) — Ipsum quin etiam ocea-
num, &c. " Nay, we have even explored the ocean in that quarter."

112 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXIV., XXXV.

With ilia, supply regione. Drusus, Tiberius, and Germanicus ex-
plored this sea. Drusus is said to have penetrated also into the
Sinus Dollarius, at the mouth of the Amisia, or Ems. Tiberius nav-
igated the Albis, or Elbe. The shipwreck of the fleet of Germanicus
proved likewise a source of discovery, and, according to Mannert
{Geogr., iii., p. 91), pointed out to navigators the way to the Baltic.
On the expedition of Drusus in Northern Germany, consult the Me-
moir of Wilhelm, in Kruse's Deutsche Alter th., ii., 1.

Herculis columnas. Besides the well-known Pillars of Hercules
at the Straits of Gibraltar, the ancient writers speak of similar ones
in the north ; a tradition which arose, in all probability, from the ex-
istence of similar natural features in that quarter. Where, how-
ever, the northern promontories were that received this name has
never been satisfactorily ascertained. It is generally supposed,
however, that the legend points to the Sound, between Denmark and
Sweden. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc, and Ukert, Geogr., i., p. 216.)—-
Sive adiit Hercules. On the legend of the wanderings of Hercules
in the ocean, consult Pherecyd., ap. Schol. ad Apollon. Rhod., iv.,
1396, and Steph. Byz., s. v. Opdfcjj.

JDruso Germanico. Mentioned in a preceding note by the name
of Drusus merely, which is his more usual appellation. He was
the brother of Tiberius, and step-son of Augustus. The younger
Drusus wras the son of Tiberius. — Mox nemo tentavit. Editors gen-
erally interpret this as meaning that no one after Drusus ventured
upon this sea, and, accordingly, are puzzled to reconcile this with
what Tacitus says in his Annals (ii., 6, 23, 24). This arises from
misunderstanding the meaning of mox, which, so far from signify-
ing that no one sailed on this sea after Drusus, implies that some
one did so, but that the expeditions of the Romans in this quarter
were soon abandoned. The other sense would require postea.

Sanctiusque ac reverentius, &c. " And it seemed more pious and
reverential to entertain a belief concerning the actions of the gods,
than to seek to become actually acquainted with them," i. e., to
believe in the present instance that Hercules actually visited the
north, and that pillars erected by him do really exist in this quarter,
than to seek to ascertain their precise position.

CHAPTER XXXV.
Novimus. " We have examined." — Ingenti flexu. This bend is
formed by the Cimbric Chersonese, or modern Jutland, which
Tacitus conceived to be rather curved and round than angular and

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXV., XXXVI. H3

pointed. — Caucorum gens. The Cauci dwelt along the ocean, from
the Amisia (Ems) to the Albis (Elbe), and reached southward some-
what below what is now East Friesland, Oldenburg, and Bremen,
although along the Visurgis ( Weser) these boundaries often changed.
Their name is still preserved in that of their harbor, Cuxhaven.
(Consult Geographical Index.) — Laleribus obtenditur. " Is stretched
along the flanks," i. e., stretches so far as to border upon. — Donee
in Cattos usque sinuetur. " Until it bends round even unto the
Catti," i. e., until it bends around so far as to meet the territories
of the Catti.

\ \Sed et implent. Ptolemy (ii., 11) mentions, as their towns, $a-
Sloavov (Brema or Varel), Aevcpava (Licneberg, Lauenberg, Buxtehuda,
or Liibbethene), Teazlta (Oldenbrook, Elsfleth, or Zetel), Tov?udpovpdov
(Verda, or Ddhlbergen), ^carovruvSa ( TJtende), and Tevdepcov (Detern).

Sine cupiditate, sine impotentia. "Without ambition, without un-
governed desires." Observe that impotentia is here equivalent to
impotentia sui, and denotes a want of command over one's passions.
— Nulla provocant bella. " They provoke no wars." (Compare Hist. ,
ii., 61 ; Agric, 42.) — Idque prcecipuum virtutis, &c. " And this fact
is a principal proof of their valor and prowess, that they do not ac-
quire their superiority by any acts of injustice." Observe that ut
superiores agantAs an expression borrowed from the language of the
stage, in which agere aliquem is the same as partes alievjus ageref
" to represent or exhibit any character," &e.

Ac, si res poscat, exercitus. Some editors read ac, si res poscat
exercitus, plurimum virorum, &c. But this is contrary to the usage
of Tacitus, who always employs the formula si res poscat abso-
lutely, and without any case attached to show what is required or
demanded. — Et quiescentibus eadem fama. "And they enjoy the
same renown even in inaction," i. e., their warlike reputation is not
at all injured by their pacific spirit.

CHAPTER XXXVI.
Cherusci, The tribe of the Cherusci must be carefully distin-
guished from the league of the Cherusci. The latter included the
Cherusci, Dulgibini, Ansibarii, Chasuari, Chamavi, Tubantes, and
Marsi. (Consult Geographical Index.) — Nimiam ac marcentem diu
facem, &c. " Long cherished, from their being unattacked by any
foe, a too lasting and enfeebling state of repose." — Impotent es.
Equivalent to impotentes sui. (Compare note on impotentia in the
preceding chapter.) — Ubi manu agitur, &c. "When matters are

114 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVI., XXXVII.

decided by the sword, moderation and mildness are terms belonging
to the victor," i. e., moderation and mildness are ascribed, not to
the weak and inactive, but to those who possess the power of in-
juring their neighbors without abusing it.

Boni cequique Cherusci. Some derive the name from an old word
cherusk, meaning "just". (Ruperti, ad loc.) — Nunc inertes ac stulti
vocantur. The name here referred to is Thuringi (Thuringer),
from thoring, " stupid." — Cattis victoribus. Compare Ann., xii., 28 ;
Dio Cass., lxvii., 5. — Fortuna in sapientiam cessit. " Their good
fortune has passed for wisdom." The meaning of the whole passage
is this : The success of the Catti, which was due to their good for-
tune, has, since they gained the mastery, been placed to the account
of their wisdom.

Tracti ruina Cheruscorum. u Were involved in the ruin of the
Cherusci." Literally, " were dragged down by the ruin of the Che-
rusci." The earlier editions, and, among more modern ones, those
of Passow, Hess, and Walch, have tacti instead of tracti, which
will make the allusion a figurative one to a contagious disease.
But tracti is a much stronger form of expression. — Fosi. The
name of this tribe is connected by Leibnitz with that of the River
Fuse, which flows into the Aller near Zelle. They were annihilated
by the Langobardi.

CHAPTER XXXVIL
Eundem Germania sinum. "This same bend of Germany," i. e.,
this same quarter of Germany, which bends, as just stated, to the
north. The reference is to the ingens flexus mentioned at the be-
ginning of chapter xxxv. — Cimbri. The Cimbri never dwelt in the
quarter here assigned them by Tacitus, namely, on the Cimbric
Chersonese, or modern Jutland. Their real country lay, probably,
on the northeast side of Germany. (Consult Geographical Index.)
— Parva nunc civitas. No state of the Cimbri existed here, as we
have just remarked. Tacitus was misled by some vague report. —
Utraque ripa castra ac spatia. " Encampments, namely, and lines on
either bank." Another vague statement, and which has given rise,
of course, to a great diversity of opinions. Brotier and others re-
fer utraque ripa to both shores of the Cimbric Chersonese. Cluver
and Dithmar, on the other hand, suppose that these encampments
are to be sought for either in Italy, upon the River Athesis (Adige),
oi in Gallia Narbonensis, near Aquae Sextiae (Aix), where Florus
(iii.,'3) mentions that the Teutones, defeated by Marius, took post

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII. 115

in a vafley with a river running through it. According, however,
to the established usus loquendi, the reference must be either to the
Rhine or the Danube, most probably the former. It must be borne
in mind, moreover, that ripa, as here emplo}^ed, is a very general
term, and does not limit the meaning to the immediate banks of
either river.

Quorum ambitu, &c. " From the compass of which you may now,
also, estimate the strength and numbers of the nation, and the de-
gree of credit due to the account of so great an emigration," i. e.,
the account generally given of the vast numbers of the Cimbri that
poured down upon southern Europe. — Sexcentesimum et quadragesi-
rnum, &c. This date corresponds to B.C. 114, but the more correct
date is 641 A.U.C., or B.C. 113, in which latter year, not in B.C.
114, Metellus and Carbo were consuls. (Dilthey, ad loc.) — Audita
sunt anna. It was in this year that the Cimbri first appeared in No-
ricum, in the northeast of the Adriatic, and on the banks of the
Danube.

Ad alterum imperatoris Trajani, &c. Trajan was five times con-
sul, the second time (the period here meant) in A.D. 98, in which
same year Nerva died, and Trajan ascended the throne. The pres-
ent tense, here employed by Tacitus, shows that the latter was en-
gaged in writing this work at the time he speaks of, namely, A.D.
98. — Conliguntur. "Are comprised." — Tamdiu Germania vincitur.
" For so long a space of time is Germany getting conquered," i. e.,
during so long a period has Germany withstood the arms of Rome.

Medio tarn longi am spatio, &c. "During the interval of so long
a period." — Non Samnis. "Not the Samnite," i. e., not the nation
of the Samnites. Observe the synecdoche. The struggle between
the Samnites and the Romans was a fierce and obstinate one, and
in the defiles of Caudium (Furca Caudina) a Roman army was com-
pelled to pass under the yoke. (Liv., ix., 2.) — Pceni. Alluding to
the disastrous defeats inflicted by Hannibal. — Hispania. "The
Spains," i. e., the two divisions of Hispania, namely, Tarraconensis
and Batica. The Iberus formed the boundary between these. Wars
were carried on in these two provinces by the Romans against the
Carthaginians, Viriathus, the Numantines, Sertorius, and others.

Gallia. " The Gauls," i. e., Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul. —
Parthi. Alluding particularly to the overthrow of Crassus, and the
check received by Marc Antony. — Sapius admonuere. " Have more
frequently reminded us (that we are not invincible)." We have
here an ellipsis more in thought than in word. Compare the ex-
planation of Longolius, "admonuere, soil, nos cladibus, nos vinci

116 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. — -CHAP. XXXVII.

posse." — Quippe regno Arsacis, &c. "No doubt because the im-
patience of control which characterizes the Germans is more vigor-
ous than the despotism of Arsaces," i. e., proves a greater stimulus
to exertion. Observe that regno Arsacis is the same as regno Par*
thico, the monarchs of Parthia being in the time of Tacitus of the
dynasty of the Arsacidse, so called from Arsaces, the founder of the
empire.

Quid enim aliud, &c. "For what else has the East, humbled
beneath a Ventidius, Pacorus himself also having been lost, to
boast of against us, save the slaughter of Crassus?" Crassus was
defeated and slain by the Parthians, B.C. "53. After the defeat of P.
Decidius Saxa, lieutenant of Syria, by the Parthians, and the seiz-
ure of Syria by Pacorus, son of King Orodes, P. Ventidius Bassus,
having been sent thither by Marc Antony, slew Pacorus, and com-
pletely restored the Roman affairs. Ventidius himself, however,
was a man of very inferior ability, and of very low origin, having
been originally a mule-driver ; and he had risen to the command of
the Roman armies in this quarter solely through the favor of An-
tony, whom he joined with three legions after the battle of Mutina.
Hence the peculiar force of dejectus infra, as implying that the once
haughty empire of the Parthians had been brought so low as to be
compelled to yield to the arms of a Ventidius. {Dilthey, ad loc.)

At Germani Carbone, &c. Cn. Papirius Carbo was defeated by
the Cimbri at Noreia, B.C. 113 {Liv., Ep., 63); L. Cassius Longi-
nus (B.C. 107) was sent under the yoke and slain by the Tigurini,
who had joined themselves to the Cimbri. {Cces., B. G., i., 7, 12 ;
Veil. Paterc, ii., 12) ; M. Aurelius Scaurus, the same year, was de-
feated and taken prisoner by the Cimbri, and put to death by Boi-
orix, a chief, or, as Livy styles him, a furious youth (ferox juve-
nis). He had excited the ire of the barbarians by advising them
not to enter Italy, assuring them that the Romans were invincible.
{Liv., Ep., 67; Veil. Paterc., ii., 12.) Q. Servilius Caepio and Cn.
Manlius (B.C. 105), through their rashness and dissensions, suffered
a severe defeat from the Cimbri, near Tolosa. {Liv., Ep., 67 ; Veil.
Paterc, ii., 12; Vol. Max., iv., 7; Plut., Mar., ii.) — Cnceo quoque
Manlio. All the old MSS. and editions have M. quoque Manlio. Cn.
and M. are frequently confounded in the MSS. In the present in-
stance, however, the true reading is Cnceo, since it had been decreed
after the death of M. Manlius Capitolinus, who was accused by the
patrician party of aiming at royal power, that no one of this family
should bear the name of Marcus. {Liv., vi., 20 ; Cic, Phil., I, 13.)

Varum. The reference is to P. Quintilius Varus, who was de-

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII. 117

feated by the Germans under Arminius, in the upper valley of the
Lippe, then covered with the deep wood of the Saltus Teutoburgien-
sis, or Teutoburger Wald. Varus fell on his own sword ; those who
were taken alive were sacrificed at altars in the forest to the gods
of the country ; and the legions were cut to pieces, with the excep-
tion of a very small body, who broke through the Germans and
i made their way to the Rhine. (Consult Ann., i., 59, seqq. ; and ii.,
! 9, seqq.) By this defeat the Roman conquests east of the Rhine
were lost. — Casari. Augustus Caesar is meant. The consterna-
tion felt at Rome, when the news of this defeat reached the capital,
is well known. (Compare Suet., Aug., 23.)

Impune. " Without loss." — Caius Marius in Italia. The allusion
is to the famous defeat of the Cimbri, in the Raudii Campi, near
Vercellae, and westward of Mediolanum, by the combined forces of
Marius and Catulus. Marius had previously defeated the Teutones
and Ambrones at Aquae Sextiae (Aiz), in Gaul. — Divus Julius in Gal-
lia. For the campaigns of Julius Caesar against the Germans, con-
sult Cces., B. G., i., 32, seqq. ; ii., 1, seqq. ; iv., 1, seqq. ; vi., 9, seqq.
— Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus. By Drusus is here meant Drusus
Germanicus, the brother of Tiberius, and by Nero, Tiberius himself,
whose full name was Claudius Tiberius Nero Drusus. Germanicus
was the son of Drusus, and nephew of Tiberius. Observe the change
of the conjunction ac in this sentence, because Drusus and Nero
were more on an equality with one another as brothers, than with
Germanicus. — In suis sedibus. For an account of the expedition of
Drusus, &c, consult Geographical Index, s. v. Germani.

Mox. A.D. 39. — Caii Ccesaris. Caligula is meant, whose his-
torical name was Caius Caesar, or, more fully, Caius Julius Caesar
Germanicus. — In ludibrium versa. " Terminated in ridicule." He
marched with a large army (A.D. 39) against the Germans, and,
when he came to the Rhine, he ordered some of the Germans who
served in his body-guard to cross the river and hide themselves. He
then caused messengers to bring him information that the enamy
was there. When this was done, he suddenly sprang up from his
meal, and with a detachment of his guards hurried across the river,
cut down some trees, and in the evening returned with the Germans,
whom he had found in their hiding-place, and whom he treated as
prisoners of war. (Compare Suet., Calig., 45, seqq. ; Bio Cass., lix.,
25.)

Inde otium. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero. But com-
pare ,47m., xi., 18, seqq.; xii., 27, seqq.; and Suet., Claud., 24. —
CiviUum armorum. The wars carried on by Gajba, Otho, Vitellius,

118 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII., XXXVIII.

and Vespasian. — Expugnatis legionum hibernis. This was done in
A.D. 69, by the Batavi under Claudius Civilis. (Hist., iv., 12, seqq. *
v., 20.) — Etiam Gallias adfectavere. "They even aimed at the pos-
session of the Gauls." — Proximis his temporibus. " In these latter
times," i. e., not only in the reign of Domitian, but also in the
reigns of Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian.

Triumphati magis quam victi sunt. (Compare Agric, 39 ; Pcrs.,
vi., 43, seqq. ; Suet., Calig., 47.) — The cognomen of Germanicus and
the honor of a triumph were frequently, out of flattery, conferred
on the emperors, on their sons and favorites ; sometimes, as in the
case of Caligula and Domitian, upon men who had never even seen
the enemy (utjS' kopanuc nov Tco?istucov. Dio Cass., lxvii., 4). Com-
pare Dilthey, ad loc.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

Suevis. According to Tacitus, the Suevi possessed all the land
from the banks of the Danube northward to the Baltic Sea, between
the Elbe and the Vistula. Caesar, on the other hand, makes their
possessions extend to the Rhine, along the north bank of the Mcenus.
The reason of this was probably owing to the fact that, on the north
side of the Mcenus, an army of Suevi had come to the aid of Ario-
vistus, which afterward retired. (Cces., B. G., i., 37, 54; iv., 1,
seqq.) The Catti were the tribe unto which Caesar gave the name
of Suevi. (Consult Geographical Index.) — Propriis adhuc nationi-
bus, &c. " Distinguished from one another up to the present time
by particular nations and names." The different nations into which
the Suevi were divided are enumerated from chapter xxxix. toxlv.,
both inclusive. — In commune. " In common." An expression be-
longing to the silver age of Latinity.

Insigne gentis, &c. "It is a badge of the race to turn back the
hair over the head, and to fasten it up in a knot," i. e., not to leave
the hair hanging down straight, but to turn or comb it back, &c,
The knot into which the hair was formed was not on the top, but at
the back part of the head. — Substringere. Properly, " to bind below
or under," and hence, " to bind from below," or, in other words,
" to bind or tie up." It is a poetic term, and belongs to the silver
age of Latinity. — A ceteris Germanis. Other ancient writers, how-
ever, make this mode of wearing the hair a badge of the Germans in
general. Dilthey compares Seneca, de Ira, iii., 26, and Juvenal, xiii.,
164. — Separantur. "Are distinguished." — A servis. The slaves
wore the hair cut close and short, as was the custom afterward

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVIII., XXXIX. 119

with this class of persons among the Franks. Long hair was the
badge of a freeman. (Compare Greg. Turon., in., 8 ; Leg. Bur-
gundy vi., 4; Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt., p. 2S4.)

Apud Suevos usque ad canitiem, &c. " Among the Suevi they put
back their bristly locks even up to the time of hoary hairs, and fre-
quently bind them into a knot on the very crown." Literally, " they
follow back," an expression which has given rise to a great diver-
sity of opinion, but which appears to mean nothing more than a con-
stant and pains-taking habit of putting back both the individual and
collected hairs. Consult Walther, ad loc, where various interpre-
tations are given, and compare Bdtticher, Lex. Tac, s. v. sequi. —
Ipso solo xertice. By solo vertice is meant " the crown alone," an
expression strengthened by the term ipso, and to be compared with
the Greek avrbc fiovog. Observe, moreover, that the old men weai
this knot of hair on the crown, the others at the back of the head.

Ea cura forma, sed innoxia. " Such is their attention to personal
appearance, though a harmless One," i. e., though not springing from
the same corrupt motives as amon «f the Romans. A less forci-
ble reading is innoxia. — In altitudinem quamdam et terror em, &c.
" Decked in this way, when about to proceed to wars, to make them-
selves appear taller, and thus strike terror, they are adorned, as
it were, for the eyes of their foes," i. e., to conquer by the very
view. Compare chapter xiiii., as cited by Dilthey, "nam primi in
omnibus praliis oculi vincuntur.^

CHAPTER XXXIX.

Vetustissimos. Earlier writers more frequently employ vetustas
in an unfavorable sense, as in Cic., Brut., 21, "sed multo tamen ve-
tustior et horridior Me." Tacitus, however, uses it in almost the
same signification as vetus. (Bdtticher, Lex. Tac., p. 488.) — Sem-
nones. They lived between the Elbe and the Oder, inhabiting the
tract which comprises what is now Mecklenburg and Brandenburg,
with part of Saxony, Bohemia, Lusatia, Silesia, and Poland. (Con-
sult Geographical Index.) — Fides antiquitatis, &c. " The belief
in their antiquity is strengthened by a religious observance (preva-
lent among them)." Compare the explanation of Ernesti : " Ut
credamus gcntem antiquam esse, etiam religionis ratio suadet." The
observance in question was connected with a human sacrifice, a rite
belonging properly to the earliest times.

In silvam. This wood is supposed to be the Sonnewald and Fin-
tterwald, between the Elster and the Svree. — Auguriis j>atrum et

120 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. XXXIX. , XL:

prisca formidine sacram. " Consecrated by the auguries of their fore-
fathers, and the awe-inspiring associations of former times." These
words form an hexameter line. Compare also Ann., i., 1. — Ccbso-
que publice homine. Compare chapter ix. Some commentators sup-
pose that Tacitus alludes to this in what he says in that same chapter,
" Pars Suevorum et Isidi sacrificat." — Primordia. The human sac-
rifice formed the beginning of the rite ; what the remainder of the
ceremony was our author does not inform us.

Est et alia luco reverentia. " There is also another mark of rev-
erential homage paid unto the grove." — Ut minor. " As an inferior
being." Compare the usage of the Greek language in the case of
tjttuv, and also Ann., xv., 16 ; Hor., Ep., i., 10, 35. The chain in-
dicates that the wearer regards himself as the slave of the deity. —
Et potestatem numinis, &c. " And displaying in his own person the
power of the divinity," i. e., in the chain that fetters him.

Evohuntur. "They roll themselves out." Compare note on
miscetur, chapter i. — Eo respicit. " Has reference to this," i. e., has
this import, has this object in view. — Inde. " From this spot," i. e.,
the sacred grove. They believed in the autochthonous origin of
their race. — Adjicit auctoritatem. Supply superstitioni Mi. Observe
that adjicere is also used absolutely, meaning " to increase."

Centum pagis habitant. Caesar (B. G.,*i., 37; iv., 1) says the
same of the Suevi. Both writers probably only drew their infor-
mation from some vague traditions. Mannert contends that Sem-
nones was not the name of any particular tribe, but a common one,
like that of Suevi, and applied to the northern branches of the latter
people. The name does not occur in history after the reign of An-
toninus Pius. (Mannert, Geogr., iii., p. 331, seqq.)

Magnoque corpore. Supply civitatis. Compare Hist., iv., 64;
Liv., xxvi., 16; xxxiv., 8.

CHAPTER XL.

Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat. " On the other hand, their
paucity of numbers ennobles the Langobardi," i. e., because, though
few in number, they maintained their ground against the tribes by
whom they were surrounded (the Cherusci, Marcomanni, Semno-
nes, Hermunduri, Cauci, and Marsi), " not by obsequious submis-
sion" to their neighbors, " but by battles and daring." — Langobardos.
The Langobardi frequently changed their settlements. At first tkey
dwelt in the neighborhood of the Lower Elbe, in the tract now called
Bardengau, between Magdeburg, Luneburg, and Hamburg, where the

NOTES OX THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XL. 121

town of Bardwick stands, and in which quarter they were subdued
by Tiberius. (Consult Geographical Index.)

Reudigni deinde et Aviaries. The position of these two tribes is
uncertain. They probably lived near Liineburg. — Angli. The An-
gli are not mentioned in the expeditions of Drusus and Tiberius, and,
therefore, probably were at that time on the east of the Elbe. Ptol-
emy places them on the west, in what is now Magdeburg. Their
name does not appear separately in history till they joined the Sax-
ons in the conquest of Britain. Part of them remained behind in
Denmark, where a tract of land in Schleswig still bears the name
of Angeln. — Varini et Eudoses, &c. For an account of these tribes,
consult Geographical Index.

Hertham. The MSK3. and earlier editions have Nerthum, which
Rhenanus (in 1519) corrected into Herthum, and Oberlin, finally, into
Hertham. Passow, Hesse, Dilthey, and others, have restored Xer-
thum ; Hack retains Herthum ; while Bekker, "Walch, &c., give the
preference to Hertham, which appears, on the whole, the better read-
ing. The word is manifestly the same as the German Erde and
the English Earth, and its more Germanic form was probably JErth-a,
with the Latin declension-suffix. Consult Klemm, Germ. Alter-
thumsk., p. 286, and the work of Barth, " Hertha" Augs., 1818, 8vo.

Eamque intervenire rebus hominum, &c. " And they think that
she takes part in the affairs of men, that she visits the different na-
tions." Literally, " that she bears herself among the nations." Ob-
serve that populis is here the ablative, not the dative, as some sup-
pose.

In insula oceani. There are various opinions respecting the sit-
uation of this island. It is identified by different writers with Ru-
gen, Fosettesland, Mona, Heligoland, Fehmern, Bornholm, Poel,&c,
but Rugen is most probably the island meant. The wood spoken
of seems to be that of Stubnitz, and the lake the Burgsee. In this
forest is a lofty rock, to this day called Hertha's rock, with a lake
at the bottom of it, in shape nearly circular, of immense depth, and
surrounded by very thick woods. Among the northern nations
islands were almost invariably selected for the performance of their
religious rites ; as was the case with Anglesea, the Isle of Man,
Holy Island, Iona, &c.

Castum. "Unpolluted." Nearly all the circumstances mentioned
here concerning the worship of Hertha agree with those practiced
at the worship of the deity of the earth (called Ceres, Rhea, Ops,
Demeter, Cybele, or Isis), in Thrace and Phrygia, by the Cabiri, Co-
rybantes, and Ideei Dactyli. At Pessinus festive days were kept, in

13$ NOTJfrl ON THE GEBMANIA. CHAP. XL., XLI.

which the image of the goddess was drawn in a car by cows through
the towns of Phrygia. (Virg., 2£n.9 vi., 785.) At every place
through which she passed sacrifices were offered ; and in Italy, after
the celebration of her festival, her car was always purified in the
waters of the River Almo. Similar customs are observed by the
Brahmins, in India, at the festival of Baghawadi.

Is adesse penetrali, &c. kt He becomes conscious of the entrance
of the goddess into her secret abiding-place," i. e., into the covered
vehicle. — Bubus feminis. When nouns denoting animals are of the
common gender, and the sex of the particular animal is to be stated,
the term mas or femina is added. (Zumpt, § 42.) — Lceti tunc dies,
&c. " Then joyous days prevail, then those places are scenes of
festivity, whatsoever ones she deems worthy of visiting and being
entertained in." Compare Botticher : " den ihres Besuches sie und
gastlichen Verweilens wurdigt."

Non bella ineunt. A festival called Alia manna frith (i. e.y All-
mann's friede), in which they abstained from war, continued to be
celebrated in Gothland even after the introduction of Christianity.
— Pax et quies. By no means pleonastic. Pax refers to foreign
wars ; quies, to internal dissensions. — Templo. " To her sacred
abode," i. e., to the sacred grove or inclosure. Observe that tern-
plum is here employed in its primitive meaning, not as implying any
building, but merely a space marked out or set apart. Compare the
Greek repevoc, from the same root (re/u, cut) with the verb reuvco.

Numen ipsum. "The divinity herself." The goddess was feigned
to have become polluted by mortal converse, and therefore required
ablution. The priests of Cybele washed the statue of the goddess ;
the Germans, unto whom statues were unknown, believed that the
person of the goddess Hertha herself was thus purified, — Haurit.
" Swallows up." The slaves were drowned in order that the im-
posture of the priests might not be divulged. The ostensible reason,
however, was, that those persons must needs perish who had beheld
the goddess herself in her real form. — Quod tantum perituri vident.
" Which they only see who are destined thereafter to perish," ?'. e.,
who, in consequence of seeing, must immediately thereafter perish.

CHAPTER XLI.

In secretiora Germanics. " Into the more remote recesses of Ger-
many."— Propior. " Nearer (unto us is)." Supply nobis est. — Her-
mundurorum. The Hermunduri lived about the sources of the Elbe,
in the north of Bohemia. In the name Hermunduri, Hermun is

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XL1., XLII. 123

probably not an essential part, but merely marks that they belonged
to the Hermiones. Duri seems to have been their real name, and
this root appears with a German ending in Thur-ingi. (Consult
Geographical Index.)— Ftda Romanis. Until A.D. 152, when a gen-
eral conspiracy against the Romans was entered into by the Mar-
comanni, Narisci, Hermunduri, Quadi, Suevi, Sarmatae, Vandali, La-
fringes, and Buri.

Non in ripa. " Not on the bank merely." Supply solum after non.
The southern bank of the Danube is meant. — Penitus. "Far in
the interior." — Splendidissima Rcetia provincice colonia. This is gen-
erally supposed to be Augusta Vlndelicorum, now Augsburg. — Non
concupiscentibus. " Not coveting them," i. e., without exciting their
cupidity. — Notum olim. Through the expeditions of Drusus, Do-
mitius, and Tiberius.

CHAPTER XLII.

Narisci. Called Varisti (OvapioToi) by Ptolemy, and Nariscae
(NaptaKai) by Dio Cassius. They dwelt at the foot of the Fichtelge-
birge. (Ptol., h\, 11.) — Marcomanni et Quadi. Consult Geographical
Index. — Ncc Narisci Quadive degenerant. " Nor do the Narisci or
the Quadi fall short (of them in valor)," i. e., nor are they inferior in
valor to the Marcomanni. Supply ab Us virtute after degenerant. —
Eaque Germania velut frons est, &c. "And this is, as it were, the
front of Germany, so far forth as it is formed by the Danube," i. e.,
bo far forth as the Danube forms this front, and separates Germany
1 in this quarter from the Roman possessions. With per agitur, which
is here to be taken in the sense of ejjicilur, supply frons from the pre-
vious clause. Passow understands iter, which appears much less
appropriate. Some editors read pergitur, others porrigitur, but all
the MSS. and earlier editions have peragitur.

Nobile Marobodui et Tudri genus. Of Maroboduus mention will
be found in the Geographical Index, s. v. Marcomanni. Tuder or
Tudrus is not mentioned by any other writer but Tacitus, nor by
the latter elsewhere than in the present passage. Neither are other
kings of the Marcomanni and Quadi spoken of except by writers of
a later age ; as Attalus (Aurel. Vict.) and Queen Fritigil (Paulinus)
among the Marcomanni : and Phurtius, Ariogaesus (Dio Cass., lxxi.,
13), Caiobamarus (Dio Cass., lxxvii., 20), Araharius, Viduarius,
Agilimundus, and Gabinius (Amm. Marcell.).

Externos reges. As Catualda, Vannius, Vangio, Sido. (Ann., ii.,
62, 63; xii., 29, 30.)— Sed vis et potentia, &c. Partly on account

124 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLH., XLITI.

of the support afforded them by the Romans against the different
factions of their kingdoms ; partly because some of them owed their
royalty to the Romans. — Sapius pecunia. In point of fact, however,
the Romans themselves were sometimes compelled to pay tribute
to these princes, as to Decebalus, the King of the Daci, and his allies
, the Marcomanni and Quadi. (Dio Cass., lxvii., 7 ; lxviii., 9.) Com-
pare chap, xv., &c.

CHAPTER XLITI.

Retro. " Farther back," i. e., farther from the Danube, and more
in the interior. — Marsigni, Gothini, &c. Consult Geographical In-
dex.—'-Terga cludunt. " They shut in the rear." — Referunt. " Re-
semble." So robora parentum liberi referunt (c. 20). — Osos Panno-
nica lingua. Compare notes on chapter xxviii. — Sarmatcz. By the
Sarmatae here are probably meant the Iazyges Metanastae, who dwelt
in the neighborhood of the Quadi, or else the Sidones.

Gothini, quo magis pudeat, &c. Because the iron mines in their
country ought to furnish them with arms, with which to assert their
freedom. The Greeks and Romans generally employed slaves to
work in the mines. — Pauca campestrium. " A small extent (only)
of level country." Observe the poetical form of expression. The
more ordinary one would be pauca campestria loca.

Continuum montium jugum. Tacitus does not give us the name
of this chain of mountains, but from his description it appears to be
identical with the Asciburgian range of Ptolemy, and the modern
Riesengebirge. — Lygiorum nomen. "The nation of the Lygii."
Literally, "the name of the Lygii," i. e., the tribes included under
the name. (Consult Geographical Index.) — Arios, Helveconas, &e.
The positions of these subdivisions are not determined with accu-
racy. For remarks concerning them, consult Geographical Index,
s. v. Arii.-r-Midiebri ornatu. The priest was probably attired in a
flowing robe, which, contrasting as it did with the closely-fitting
attire of the Germans in general, was mistaken for a female dress.

Sed deos, inter pretatione Romana, &c. "But they say that the
gods (worshiped there) are, according to Roman interpretation,
Castor and Pollux," i. e. writers and travelers inform us, that the
gods worshiped in this sacred grove resemble in their attributes,
and are the same with the Roman deities Castor and Pollux. — Ea
vis numini, &c. " This is the power assigned unto their godhead ;
their name is Aid ;" i. e., such are the attributes of these divinities,
resembling those of the Dioscuri, &c. — Aids. The dative plural

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLIII. 125

by a well-known Hellenism (est Mis nomen Alcis), and to be deduced,
therefore, from a nominative plural ~Alci, not from such a form as
Alces, which would make Alcibus. Anton derives the name from
the Sclavonic holcz, " a boy" or "youth," in the plural holczy, with
which we may compare the well-known epithet of AiocKopoc, " sons
of Jove," applied to Castor and Pollux. (Anton, Laus. Mon. Schrift,
1793, i., 22. — Id., Gesch. der Deutschen Nation, i., p. 381. Compare
Klemm, Germ. Alter thumsk., p. 288.)

Yenerantur. To be takea transitively : the passive was not in use
except in the participle. — Enumeratos paulo ante populos. The Mar-
signi, Gothini, and Osi. — Insitce feritati arte ac tempore lenocinantur .
" Increase the effect of their innate ferocity by calling art and a par-
ticular time to their aid." Literally, " pander to their innate ferocity
by means of art and time." Arte refers to their black shields and
stained bodies ; tempore to the murky nights chosen for their en-
gagements ; " atras ad prcelia nodes legunt."

Tincta corpora. " Their bodies are stained," i. e., a dark or sable
hue. This practice, which was unusual among the Germans, was
probably borrowed from the Sarmatian tribes. (Compare Herod.,
v., 6.) — Ipsa formidine, &c. "By the very alarm (which their as-
pect occasions), and by the shade-like appearance of their funereal
host." The funereal gloom of their sable bands makes these re-
semble so many spectres. — Infernum. " Unearthly."

Gotones. Consult Geographical Index. — Regnantur. Consult
notes on chap. xxv. — Paulo adductius. " With a somewhat tighter
rein." A metaphor from drawing in the reins of a steed. — Supra
libertatcm. " To a degree incompatible with freedom." Literally,
" above freedom," i. e., rising above and triumphing over it. — Pro-
tinus deinde ab oceano. " Immediately thereafter in the direction of
(and reaching to) the ocean." As regards the peculiar meaning of
ab in this passage, compare the remarks of Hand (ad Tursell, vol.
i., p. 48) : " Ab indicat regionem et statum rei alicujus. Nam ut lo-
cum, quern aliqua res obtinet, verbis designemus, ad aliam rem respicere,
et utriusque situm vel ex vicinia vet ex distantia concipere solemus.
Latini dicebant rem ab aliqua re stare et sitam esse, ubi intelligebant
vel regionem adversam, vel vicinam, vel anteriorem. Reddi igitur potest
sensus per a parte, versus," &c.

Rugii et Lemovii. The Rugii lived between the Oder and Vistula.
The island of Rugen probably took its name from them. After the
death of Attila, they took possession of part of Austria, Moravia,
and Upper Hungary, but in A.D. 480 were either destroyed or dis-
persed by Odoacer. The Lemovii seem to have dwelt near the
town and river of Leba. They are not mentioned elsewhere

126 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLIV.

CHAPTER XLIV.

Suionum. The Suiones inhabited the south of Sweden, which
was supposed by the ancients to be an island. — Ipso in oceano. " In
the very ocean." The reference is to their supposed insular situa-
tion. The ocean meant is the Baltic Sea.— Eo differt. " Differs in
this respect from that of ours." — Quod utrimque prom, &c. Resem-
bling the canoes still used by the Swedes* and by our own aborigi-
nes (Compare Ann., ii., 6.) — Paratam semper appulsui, &c. "Af-
fords a front always ready for driving up on the beach." — Nee min-
istrantur. " They are neither worked." — In ordinem. " In any
regular order." Observe the employment of in with the accusative,
on account of the idea of movement implied in adjungunt. — Solu-
turn, ut in quibusdam fluminum, &c. " Their mode of rowing is
without any regularity, as (is practiced) in some rivers, and changes,
as occasion requires, on this side or on that." The movement
here described is like the paddling of a canoe. — In quibusdam flumi-
num. Pronouns, adjectives, and participles in the plural, joined
with a genitive, are of frequent occurrence in Tacitus.

Est apud illos et opibus honos. The wealth here referred to was
acquired by traffic. What Tacitus here states relative to their
honoring wealth is directly the reverse of what was the case with
the other Germans. Of these last our author remarks (chap, v.) :
" Possessione et usu haud perinde afficiuntur" &c. — Nullis jam ex-
ceptionibus. The particle jam here implies, that as we go further
northward the people degenerate more and more from the spirit of
liberty which characterized the southern tribes, till at last we come
to a people with an absolute ruler. — Non precario jure parendi.
" With no. precarious conditions of allegiance." More freely, " with
an absolute claim upon their obedience." Precarium jus is a right
granted to a person's entreaties. Some editors take parendi in a
passive sense, and adduce, as parallel instances, censendi causa (Cic.,
Verr., i., 18) ; celandi (TibulL, i., 9, 23). But this is unnecessary.

Nee arma in promiscuo. " Nor are arms (allowed to be kept) pro-
miscuously." Supply concessa sunt. — Et quidem servo. " And he,
too, a slave." — Oceanus. Their supposed insular situation. — Otiosa
porro armatorum manus, &c. As in the case of the Praetorian sol-
diers and the Janissaries. Some editors give otiosa ; but the con-
struction of a singular noun of multitude with a plural verb is only
allowable when some clause intervenes and separates them. Such
a phrase as turba ruunt would be inadmissible. — Enimvero

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLIV., XLV. 127

regia utilitas est. " In truth, it is the policy of kings." In the pre-
vious clause, namely, otiosce porro armatcrum, &c., the reason is
given why arms are not allowed to ail without distinction ; and now
we have the other reason assigned why the charge of them is in-
trusted to a slave.

CHAPTER XLV.

Trans Suionas aliud mare> &c. " Beyond the Suiones is another
sea, sluggish and almost without any motion," i. e., on account of
the ice. (Compare Agric, 10.) — Hinc. "From the following cir-
cumstance." This refers to what immediately follows, namely,
quod extremus, &c. — Quod extremus cadentis jam solis fulgor, &c.
" Because the last brightness of the now setting sun continues so
vivid, until its rising, as to obscure the stars." Compare Agric,
12, "Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis mensuram," &c. In the age
of Pliny and Tacitus the globular form of the earth was well known.
(Compare Plin., ii., 64.) And Tacitus considered the earth, though
not completely spherical, as a globe at rest in the centre of the uni-
verse, with the land completely surrounded by water; as Pliny
(it., 66) says : " Est igitur in toto globo tellus medio ambitu pracincta
circumfluo mariV (Compare, also, Plin., ii., 70, 75.) The part of the
earth from Britain to the pole Tacitus conceived to be flatter than
that from Italy to Britain, since there was no chain of mountains at
all to be compared to the Alps ; and hence he talks of the extrema et
plana ierrarum {Agric., 12). And as night is nothing else than the
shadow of the earth {Plin., ii., 10) rising in the form of a cone,
since the body illumined is less than the body that illumines it, the
notion entertained by Tacitus is, that at the time of the solstice,
when the sun approaches nearer the pole {Plin., ii., 75), and ac-
cordingly does not sink far below the horizon, the shadow of the
flatter parts of the earth toward the pole can not shroud the whole
heavens in darkness {extrema et plana terrarum non erigunt tenebras) ;
but the surface of the earth only is darkened, while the sky and
stars appear above the shadow, and are illumined by the rays of the
sun {infra cozlum et sidera nox cadit, Agric., 12).

Sonum insuyer audiri, &c. " Popular belief adds, that a sound is,
moreover, heard," &c. The sound here referred to is not that of
the sun hissing as he sinks into the ocean, which, however, was
the vulgar belief (compare Strabo, iii., p. 138 ; Juv., xiv., 280), but
that produced by the Aurora Borealis ; and the formas deorum et
radios capitis refer likewise to the fanciful shapes assumed by these
electrical phenomena . To this source, perhaps, may bo traced the

128 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLV.

lays of the northern tribes, and of Ossian respecting the Walkyis,
" The ghosts light as the blast of Cromla, the riders of the storm
and fiery horses, sitting on low-hung clouds, and moving like the
shadow of mist."

Blue usque, &c. " Thus far only, and report says true, does na
ture extend." Observe that tantum is to be joined in construction
with illuc usque. For other modes of reading and explaining this
much-contested clause, consult Walther's note. — Ergo jam dextro,
&c. " To return, therefore, now, the tribes of the iEstyi, along the
right-hand shore of the Suevic Sea, are washed by its waves." By
the Suevic Sea is meant the Baltic. The name of the JEstyi still
remains in that of the Esthen. They inhabited Prussia, Livonia,
and Courland. Some think that their name merely means " the
people of the east." (Compare Meidinger, Etymol. Wdrterb., p.
508.) — Lingua Britannicce propior. Compare Agric, ii., where a
Germanic origin, whether correctly or not is uncertain, is attributed
to the Caledonians.

Matrem deum. The Isis or Hertha of the Suevi, the Frigga of
the Scandinavians, the Foseta of the Cimbri. (Consult Jacobs, ad
loc.) — Formas aprorum gestant. " They carry about them the forms
of wild boars," i. e., as amulets. The boar, as the symbol of fecund-
ity, was sacred to Hertha. Amulets of the same kind, with which
the Wends used to ornament the images of their deities, have been
dug up in the neighborhood of Prilwitch, a town of Mecklenburg.
Many remnants of this superstition still remain in Sweden. At the
time of the festival anciently celebrated in honor of Frea, the rus-
tics make bread into the form of a hog, which is applied to various
superstitious uses.

Pro. " Supplying the place of." — Frumentum ceterosque fructus,
&c. " They cultivate corn and the other fruits of the earth with
more patient industry than might have been expected from the
usual indolence of the Germans." Compare chapters xiv., xv. —
Succinum. " Amber." So called because it was believed to be the
sap (succus) of a tree. — Quod ipsi glesum vocant. " Which they
themselves call glese," i. e., glass, from its brightness (gleissen,
"to shine"), like yXenrpov in Greek; from which the Glesarice in-
suIcb (Electrides in Greek) received their name. The term glesum,
it will be perceived, is nothing more than the old German word
glas or glaes Latinized, and converted into a neuter noun. (Con-
sult Graff, Althochd. Sprachsch., iv., col. 288.) — Inter vada, atque in
ipso litore. On the shores of Pomerania, Curonia, and Prussia ;
now principally on the coast of Samland, from Pillau to the Curische

NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XI/W 129

Nehrung. It first became known in the south of Europe through
the Phoenicians.

Nee, qucz natura, quceve ratio gignat, &c. " Nor has it been in-
quired into or found out by them, as is usual among barbarians,
what may be its nature, or what principle of production may give
it birth," i. e., what is its nature or the manner of its production. —
Ejectamenta. The term ejectamentum, here employed, is of rare oc-
currence. We meet with it also in Apuleius. (ApoL, 297.) Tac-
itus appears partial to words of this termination : thus we have
placamenta (Hist., i., 13); meditamenta (Hist., iv., 26); turbamenta
(Hist., i., 23) ; tentamenta (Hist., i\., 38) ; libramenta (Hist., iii., 23),
&c. — Donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen. "Until our luxury gave it
a name," i. e., celebrity. This remark must be received with some
abatement, sincait would appear that amber was certainly held in
some degree of estimation by the ancient Germans, at least small
balls of this substance strung on horse-hair, and large unwrought
pieces have been found in tombs. (Spangenberg, N. vaterl. Archiv.,
iv., p. 183. — Klemm, Germ. Alter thumsk., p. 22.)

Perfertur. By traders through Pannonia to the Adriatic Sea, and
thence to Rome. — Succum tamen arborum, &e. The same notion is
advanced by Pliny (xxxvii., 2, 3). It has been shown, however,
that this opinion, though a common one, is incorrect, and that am-
ber is bituminous in its nature, and is produced under ground. — Im-
plicata kumore. " Entangled in it while in a liquid state." — Dure-
scente. " As it hardens."

Fecundiora igitur nemora, &c. " For my own part, therefore, I
believe, that, as in the remote regions of the east, where incense
and balsam are exuded, so there are in the islands and lands of the
west, woods and groves of more than ordinary luxuriance, the
juices of which, squeezed out and rendered liquid by the rays of the
sun close to them, flow into the neighboring sea, and are washed
up on the opposite shores by the force of tempests." The incense
refers to Arabia, the balsam to Judaea and Arabia. (Compare Virg.,
Georg., i., 57; ii., 117: Plin., xii., 54; xvi., 59: Pausan., ix., 28.)
— Ut in picem resinamve lentescit. " It resolves itself into a glutin-
ous mass, as if into pitch or resin," i. e., resembling pitch or resin.

Suionibus Sitonum gentes continuantur. " The tribes of the Sitones
follow in immediate succession after the Suiones." Observe that
continuari, in the passive, is sometimes, as in the present instance,
equivalent to proxime Juzrere, or continenter sequi. — Sitonum gentes.
According to Mannert, the Sitones and Suiones are merely branches
cf the same race under different forms of government, the country

130 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLV., XLVI.

of both answering to modern Sweden. Probably, however, the
Sitones extended also into Norway. In the fourth century, the
Sitones became known in southern countries by the name of Sue-
thans, having been carried thither in the way of traffic. (Augustin,
Comment, in Ecclesiast., c. 43, v. 2 ; Jornandes, Get., c. 3 ; Mannertt
Geog., hi., p. 321.)

In tantum. "To such an extent." So "in quantum modum"
(Ann., xv., 25) : " quantum" (Ann., vi., 21) : " in quantum." (Juv.,
xiv., 318.) — Non modo a liber tate, &c. Compare the paraphrase of
Pichena : " Degenerant a libertate, quia ceteri Germani fere omnes
liberi, hi servi ; degenerant a servitute, quia servientes populi Regibus,
ideoque hominibus, servire solent, hi feminis ."

CHAPTER XLVI.

Peucinorum, &c. Consult Geographical Index. — Sede ac domi-
ciliis. " In fixedness of settlement and in the nature of their dwell-
ings." The settlements and habitations of the Peucini were fixed
and stationary ; whereas the Sarmatians wandered about in their
wagons. — Sordes omnium ac torpor. " Filth and laziness are charac-
teristics bf all." A far more natural reading than to place, as some
do, a colon after procerum, and no stop after torpor. — Procerum con-
nubiis mixtis, &c. " Through the intermarriage of their chiefs
with the Sarmatians, they are gradually assuming the disgusting
character of that people."

Ex moribus. Supply Sarmatarum. — Hi tamen inter Germanos,
&c. Ptolemy and others, more correctly, make them a branch of
the Sarmatians. — Domus fingunt. So " luteum fingere opus" (Ovid,
Fast., i., 158); " fingere nidos" (Cic., de Or., ii., 6.) There is an-
other reading, figunt, which Walther prefers. — Qucz omnia diver sa,
&c. "All which customs differ from those of the Sarmatae, living,
as they do, in wagons and on horseback." Literally, " all which
things are different unto the Sarmatae."

Fennis. The Fenni are the modern Finns, the inhabitants of
Finnland. — Cubile humus. " Their couch is the ground." Observe
the change of construction. We would naturally have expected
cubili humus, but the nominative is substituted as more emphatic. —
Ossibus asperant. " They roughly head with bones." The Sibe-
rian tribes, at the present day, employ for a like purpose the bones
of fish. Observe, with regard to the verb aspero, that it occurs most
frequently in the poets and in Tacitus. In Cicero it never appears.

Passim enim comitantur. " For they accompany (their husbands)

NOTES ON THE GERxMANIA. CHAP. XLVI. 131

every where." Supply viros. — In aliquo ramorum nexu. " Beneath
some interlacing of boughs." — Ingemere agris, illaborare domibus.
" To groan over fields, to labor upon dwellings," i. e., to groan over
the plough, to labor in the erection of dwellings. The verb illabo-
rare is here formed after the model of ingemere. It nowhere else
appears in this meaning, since illaboratus, which does occur, has
the signification of "not labored," "done without labor." — Suas
alienasque for tunas, &c. " To keep their own fortunes and those
of others in a state of constant disquiet through mingled hope and
fear," i. e., to be harassed by the alternate hopes and fears of en-
riching or ruining themselves and others in trade and traffic.

Securi adversus homines. " Without care and anxiety as regards
men." Observe that securi, in this and the following clause, must
not be rendered " safe." Compare Agric., 9 : " Castrensis jurisdic-
tio secura et obtusior," &c., and " unice securus" (Horat., Od., i., xxvi.,
3.) — TJt Mis ne voto quidem opus esset, " That they would not need
even a wish." Rhenanus conjectured opus sit for opus esset, and
his emendation was adopted by all subsequent editors until the time
of Ernesti, who restored esset, without, however, assigning a very
satisfactory reason. The true reason is this : Tacitus does not
mean to say that they have no need even of a wish, as if stating a
fact ; but he gives merely the result of his own reflections, namely,
that they would not need even a wish, if there were any thing to be
actually wished for. Compare the explanation of Walther : " dass
sie auch nicht einmal das Bedurfniss eines Wunsches haben diirften
(scilicet si quid esset opjandum)."

Hellusios et Oxionas. Probably the inhabitants of Lapland. The
fable here stated may possibly have arisen from their wearing the
skins of wild beasts. — Oxionas. Tacitus occasionally uses this
Greek ending, as in Heheconas (chap, xliii.) ; Suionas (chap, xlv.) ;
Vangionas ac Nemetas (Ann., xii., 27). — In medium relinquam. "I
will make a subject of doubt, and leave undecided." Equivalent,
as Botticher correctly remarks, to in dubium vocatum relinquam in
medio. The preposition in, though joined here with the accusative,
includes at the same time the idea of the ablative, and the clause
may, therefore, be ranked under the head of a syllepsis. (Consult
the remarks of Botticher on the style of Tacitus, p. xlii.of the pres-
ent volume.)

NOTES

THE AGRICOLA.

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.

The composition of this work may be assigned, from internal and
external evidence, to the year of Rome 850-1 (A.D. 98-97), four
years after Agricola's death. The first three chapters comprise the
preface, the substance of which is as follows : In times of yore,
when there was no reason, as now, to dread men's ignorance of vir-
tue, and their envy of her votaries, it was usual to hand down to
posterity the exploits and characters of famous men ; and a man
was not found fault with even if he narrated his own life. But in
times like these, when we have only lately seen that to praise il-
lustrious men was a capital crime, I must plead for favor and in-
dulgence, which I should not have done had not my path lain
through times inimical to virtue, in which even those remain un-
punished through whose charges Agricola fell, and through whose
means many have been calumniated. At length, however, spirit
and liberty are returning, though the desire of writing springs up
but gradually and slowly, since talents and zeal may be more
quickly smothered and suppressed than roused again to vigor and
activity ; and sloth, at first the object of our hatred, ends with in-
gratiating itself into our favor. Hence I am led to hope that I
shall meet with excuse for having formed the design of writing this
memoir.

CHAPTER I.
Clarorum virorum facta moresque, &c. " To transmit to posterity
the exploits and characters of distinguished men, a custom prevalent
in early days, not even in our own times has the age, though taking
little interest in its own (eminent individuals), entirely neglected,
as often as some great and ennobling instance of merit has triumphed
over and surmounted a vice common to small and great communi-
ties, an insensibility to, and an envying of virtue." Observe that
the epithet clarus is properly applied to those who are distinguished,
not by birth, but by personal merit, as warriors or statesmen. — Usi-
iatum. Accusative sing. neut. of the participle, agreeing with the
preceding clause. — Recti. The term rectum here corresponds to

136 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. I.

bpdov, opdoTijc, in the Platonic sense. Compare Auct. ad Herenn.,
iii., 2 : " Rectum, constans ex virtute et officio, dividitur in prudentiam,
justitiam, fortitudinem, modestiam." — Ignoranliam recti et invidiam.
Two causes alone can, according to Tacitus, deprive the eminent
men of his time of the fame to which their merit is entitled, namely,
their contemporaries either deny their claims to distinction, from
an ignorance of what is truly great, or else meanly envy them.

Pronum magisque in aperto erat. "Was easy and more unob-
structed (than in our own times)." Pronus properly means, " bend-
ing forward," " inclined," and hence, " easy." It is by no means,
however, merely synonymous here with magis in aperto, as some
suppose. Things are said to be in aperto in two ways : first, as re-
gards a becoming acquainted with them, and then they are clear and
free from all obscurity ; and, secondly, as regards a performing of
them, and then they are free from obstruction and impediment. It
is in the latter sense that in aperto is here used. Peerlkamp con-
jectures pronum magis atque in aperto erat, ox pronum magis magisque
in aperto erat; but magis is not required with pronum, since this epi-
thet of itself denotes that which inclines more in some particular di-
rection. (Compare Walther, ad loc.)

Celeberrimus quisque ingenio, &c. Beside Arulenus Rusticus, and
Senecio, mentioned in chapter ii., Pliny the elder is named as the
biographer of Pomponius Secundus ; Claudius Pollio wrote a life of
Musonius Bassus (Plin., Ep., vii., 31) ; and Julius Secundus, a life
of Julius Asiaticus. {Dial, de Or., 14.) — Sine gratia aut ambitione.
"Without predilection or interested motives." The term ambitia
is not used here in the old Roman sense of an honorable suing for
preferment or public favor (as well explained by Ernesti, Clav.
Cic, s. v., and Heusinger, ad Cic, Off., i., 30, 9), but in the unfavor-
able meaning which it acquired during the silver age, wlpn ambitio
became a vitium, and denoted a desire to gain notoriety, or to pro-
mote one's own interests by ministering to the wishes or prejudices
of others. (Consult Watch, ad loc. ; Spalding, ad Quintil, i., 2, 22 ;
Botticher, Lex. Tac, s. v.)

Ac plerique suam ipsi vitam narrare, &c. " Many, too, considered
it rather as a confidence in their integrity, than as a mark of arro-
gance, for themselves to write the history of their own lives."
Tacitus frequently makes plerique, as in the present instance, equiv-
alent merely to nolloi, and not to have its full force of ol noAkoi. —
Nee id Rutilio et Scaur o, &c. " Nor did this prove, unto a Rutilius
and a Scaurus, a ground for withholding full credit, or a source of
censure." Compare note on "extra specicm;" Germ,, c. 16. Ru-

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. I., II. 137

tilius, in addition to a biography of himself, composed a history and
some orations. He was lieutenant to Q. Metellus Numidieus,
A.U.C. 645. He was accused of bribery by Scaurus, was unjustly
condemned, and went into exile at Smyrna, of which place he be-
came a citizen, and refused to return at the invitation of Sylla. M
yEmilius Scaurus was consul with M. Case. Metellus in A.U.C. 639,
and again in 647, and censor in 645. He was one of the commis-
sioners sent into Africa in the Jugurthine war, and suffered himself
to be corrupted by Jugurtha. He was a violent opposer of Saturni-
nus ; and was charged by Varius with having been instrumental in
exciting the revolt of the Italian allies, but was acquitted. (Cic,
Brut., 29 ; Plin., xxxiii., 6.) It is not unlikely that Rutilius, in his
voluntary exile, wrote his own life as a defence of his conduct, and
that this induced Scaurus to write a biography of himself.

Adeo. "So true it is that." Literally, "to such a degree."
Compare Be Lamalle, " tant il est max que" &c.

CHAPTER II.

At mihi, nunc narraturo, &c. Though, under Nerva, liberty had
again dawned upon Rome, and men's courage had begun to revive,
Tacitus had still to fear the malicious accusations of many, who
would imagine that, in portraying the crimes of the past age, a side
reference was made to their own ; and. therefore, at the commence-
ment of his memoir he asks for security against all charges of this
-kind. This passage may be illustrated from the Annals (iv., 33). —
Ni cursaturus tempora. " Were I not about to traverse times." A
metaphor borrowed from the movements of the circus. Some of
the early editions read ni incur saturus, from which Lipsius conjec-
tured ni incusaturus, and this latter reading has been adopted by-
several subsequent editors. No change, however, is required in the
common text.

Legimus, cum Aruleno Rustico, &c. Both occurrences took place
in Domitian's reign, A.U.C. 846 or 847. Tacitus was present at
the death of Senecio, as we learn from chapter xlv. The reference
in legimus is to the Acta Diurna (" Proceedings of the Day"), a kind
of gazette published daily at Rome under the authority of the gov-
ernment, and which contained an account of the proceedings of the
public assemblies, of the law courts, of the punishment of offend-
ers, and also a list of births, marriages, deaths, &c. (Consult
Diet. Ant., s. v.) — Aruleno Rustico. Dio Cassius states that Domi-
tian put Arulenus to death because he was a philosopher, and be

1*38 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. II.

cause he had given Thrasea the appellation of " holy" (nal on top
Qpaciav lepbv G)v6pa&. Dio Cass., lxvii., 11. Compare Ann., xvi.,
25, 26). Among the accusers of Arulenus, M. Regulus was subscript
tor. The real accuser was Metius Carus. — Pcetus Thrasea. For
the account of the death of this individual under Nero (A.U.C. 820),
consult Ann., xvi., 21. — Herennio Senecioni. With regard to this in-
dividual, consult chapter xlv. — Priscus Helvidius. Helvidius Pris-
cus was the son-in-law of Thrasea. (Consult Hist., iv., 5.) He
was banished and put to death by Vespasian. (Suet., Vesp., 15;
Masson, Vit. Plin., p. 15.)

Triumviris. The Triumviri Capitales are meant, among whose
other duties was that of carrying into effect the sentences of the
law, &c. They were attended by eight lictors to execute their or-
ders. Pliny (Ep., vii., 19) says, " senatus consulto abolitos libros,'*
alluding to the present affair ; but this contains no contradiction to
the narrative of Tacitus, since the decree of the senate would come
first, and the burning of the works by the Triumvirs, or, rather, their
lictors, would follow. (JValch, ad loc.) — In comitio ac foro. The
comitium adjoined the forum, and was the place of public execution
in the time of the emperors. Originally, it was the spot where the
Comitia Curiata were held. Compare Seneca (Cont., vii., 1):
" Nefas commissum est, ad cxpiandum scelus Triumviris opus est,
comitio, carnifice."

Conscientiam generis humani. " The secret convictions of man-
kind." The term conscientia is here employed to denote the knowl-
edge or persuasion of a thing which one has in common with others,
or, as Botticher terms it, " communis alicujus rei sciential and the
idea of Tacitus is well carried out by the Delphin editor : " cognitio
kcec interna et arcana omnium mortalium, qua simul et secreta ac tacita
accusatio fuit scelerum Domitiani : qua conscientia ad tcmpus cohibita
vi dominationis, pressaque silentio, tandem erumperet." — Expulsis in-
super sapientia professoribus, &c. Eusebius mentions that the phi-
losophers (who are here meant by sapientice professores) were twice
expelled by Domitian, first in A.D. 89, and again in A.D. 96. That
Tacitus refers to the latter of these occasions, is evident from chap,
xlv., and from Dio Cassius (lxvii., 13), 01 6e Tiolttol ((ptTioooyot) av-
6tg k%r\kadr\aav etc rfjc TcJfi?]g. As this expulsion of the philosophers
is spoken of as the consequence of the deaths of Senecio and Aru-
lenus, it should probably be placed in the commencement of A.U.C.
847, or iV.D. 94. ( Walch, ad loc.)

Vetus atas. This expression, like prius (Bvum (Histn i., 1), gen-
erally refers in Tacitus to the period before the battle of Actium.—

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. II., III. 139

Quid ultimum in liber tate esset. " What was the furthest limit in
freedom.'' By the ultirnum in libertate we are not to understand the
greatest happiness, nor the last remnants of liberty under Augustus
and Tiberius ; but rather, as Walcb remarks, unbridled licentious-
ness, the immoderata libertas of Cicero. (Cic, Ep. ad Quint. Fr.t
i., 1.) — Per inquisitiones. u By spyings (in the very bosoms of our
families)." Compare Walch : " heimliche Nachspdhungen ,•" and, as
an illustration of the idea intended to be conveyed by the term, Ann.,

iv., 69 : " Pavens civitas nota, ignotaque aures vitari ; etiam

muta et inanima, tectum et parietes circumspectabantur '." — Et loquendi.
Lipsius conjectures etiam loquendi, but without any necessity, since
et itself has here the force of etiam. (Walther, ad loc.)

Memoriam quoque ipsam, &c. The meaning is this : we would
have gone so far in our patient endurance of tyranny, as not to have
dared even to remember if, &c. This explanation will obviate the
objection made to nostra by Jacob in Jahn's Jahrbucher, for 1828,
vol. ii., 2, p. 161.

CHAPTER III.

Animus. " Courage." — Et quamquam. The conjunction et has
here the force of et tamen, " and yet." — Beatissimi saculi. " Of this
most blissful period." The term scecuhim here does not mean a
century, but a period of uncertain duration, lasting until another
emperor introduced a new order of things. Thus Pliny {Ep., x., 2)
styles the reign of Domitian " tristissimum saculum." The period,
to the commencement of which Tacitus- here alludes, deserved, as
the event abundantly showed, the epithet beatissimum here bestowed
upon it. It began when, after the death of Domitian, the imperial
authority devolved on Nerva, and the virtues of this prince were em-
ulated by the successive emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and both the
Antonines. The reigns of these five monarchs, embracing a period
of nearly ninety years, formed the happiest era in the history of the
Roman Empire.

JServa Ccesar. Since Tacitus does not apply to him the term
Divus, it may be conjectured that the life of Agricola was published
while Nerva was yet alive, that is, between the 16th of September,
A.D. 97, when Trajan was adopted, and the 27th of January, A.D.
98, the date of Nerva's death. ( Waich, ad loc. — Ryckius, ad Ann.,
lii., 24.) — Res olim dissociabilcs miscuerit. " Has united things be-
fore irreconcilable." — Nerva Trajanus. Trajan was so called when
adopted by Nerva. Brotier refers to a gold coin, in the royal col-

140 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. III.

lection at Paris, with the inscription NERVA TRAJAN. C^ES.
GERM. NERV. AVG. F. P. TR. P. COS. II., that is, Nerva Traja-
nus, CcBsar, Germanicus, Nervce Augusti Jilius, Pontifex, Tribunicice
Potestatis, consul iterum ; and on the reverse ADOPTATIO. — Nee
spent modo ac votum, &c. " And the public security has not only-
conceived hopes and wishes, but has attained unto confidence in
the fulfillment of those very wishes, and unto a state of stability."
Observe the zeugma in assumserit, by which it obtains in the first
clause the force of conceperit. The public security, moreover, is
here personified, and there is an allusion to the medallions struck
by the emperors, with the figure of the goddess Securitas, and the
inscription SECVRITAS or SECVRITATI PERPETVAE.

Ingenia studiaque. "Talents and literary industry." — Subit.
" Steals over us." Analogous to the Greek vnspxeTcu.

Per quindecim annos. Referring to the fifteen years of Domitian's
tyranny, from A.D. 81 to 96, between the reigns of Titus and
Nerva. — Multi fortuitis casibus. This is the emendation of Lipsius,
in place of the common reading multis fortuitis casibus. The op-
position between multi and promtissimus quisque proves at once the
correctness of the change. — Promtissimus quisque. " All those most
distinguished for readiness and activity."

Pauci, ut ita dixerim, &c. " A few of us are, if I may use the ex-
pression, survivors not only of others, but even of our own selves,"
i. e., have outlived not only others, in a corporeal sense, but even^our
own selves in what relates to the mind : because, to use the words
of Pliny (Ep., viii., 14), " Ingenia nostra in posterum quoque hebetata,
fracta, contusa sunt.11 Observe that the words ut ita dixerim are in-
tended as an apology for the boldness of expression in nostri super-
stites. With regard, moreover, to the employment here of dixerim
instead of the earlier dicam, consult Zumpt, § 528, note 1.

Quibus juvenes ad senectutem, &c. Tacitus could not include him-
self among the senes, a latter class here mentioned, since at this
period he was only about forty-five years old. — Per silentium. By
silentium is here meant the repression of mental activity, referring
to what was said before, studia represseris facilius quam revocaveris.

Memoriam prioris servitutis. " A memorial of former servitude."
Namely, in his Annals and Histories.— Testimonium prcesentium bo-
norum. In the history of Nerva and Trajan which he intended to
compose in his old age. (Compare Hist., i., 1.) — Hie interim liber,
&c. " The present work, meanwhile, dedicated to the honor of
my father-in-law Agricola, will be either praised, or (at least) ex-
cused, from its profession of filial piety," i. e., from the feeling of

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IV. 141

filial piety in which it professes to have been composed, or, in other
words, from the piety of the intent. The term pietas most gener*
ally means filial piety or affection.

CHAPTER IV.

Vetere et illustri Forojuliensium colonia. " In the ancient and il-
lustrious colony of Forumjulii." The town of Forumjulii (called
also Forojulii) was situate in Gallia Narbonensis, and is now Frejus.
It must not be confounded writh Forumjulii in Venetia, now Friuli.
The term illustris is here applied to the former, not so much from its
own intrinsic importance as from the renown of its founder, Julius
/Caesar. It was founded about the year B.C. 43, on the site of the an-
cient Oxubia. Pliny (iii., 4) calls the place Octavanorum colonia, from
the veterans of the 8th legion, who composed the colony ; and Pa-
censis et Classica, from its being the station of a Roman fleet. — Pro-
curator em Cazsarum. " An imperial procurator." These procura-
tores not only exacted the tribute from the provinces, and acted as
stewards where the emperor had possessions, but collected the
vigesima hereditatum and other imperial perquisites. (Compare
Mas cow, de Procurat., i., 7, and Walch, ad loc.) — Quce equestris no-
bilitas est. " Which post confers equestrian nobility," i. e., which
post raises a man to the rank of an eques illustris, and gives him the
right to sit in the senate and to wear the toga laticlavia. * A dis-
tinction of rank had arisen even in the time of Augustus among the
equites. (Compare Bio Cass., liv., 30, and Walch, ad loc.)

Julius Grcecinus. Seneca bears very honorable testimony to his
character, and says that he was put to death by Caligula because
it was inexpedient for a tyrant to have so virtuous a subject.
(Senec, de Bene/., ii., 21.) The name Graecinus occurs in the Fasti,
among the consules suffecti of the year A.D. 16. From the contents
of the books (xiv. and xv.), for which Pliny consulted the works of
this individual, he would appear to have written on botany or viti-
culture. (Compare, also, Columell.,\., 14.) — Sapientice. Philosophy
is meant. — M. Silanum. Silanus was consul A.D. 19. (Ann., ii.,
59.) In the year 33, Caligula married his daughter Junia Claudilla.
(Ann., vi., 20.) He was appointed proconsul of Africa, and after-
ward put to death by the emperor. (Hist., iv., 48. Suet., Cal, 23.)
In hujus sinu indulgentmque educatus. " Brought up in the bosom
and beneath the affectionate care of this parent." The expression
in sinu refers to the strict supervision exercised by his parent, and
indulgcntia (which is here to be taken in a good sense) to the mild-

142 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IV.

ness with which that supervision was affectionately enforced. Ag-
ricola's mother brought back the old Roman custom of mothers
themselves superintending the education of their children, and not
leaving this to slaves. Hence the peculiar force of in sinu. Hein-
sius, mistaking the true meaning of indulgenlia here, conjectures,
very unnecessarily, in cujus sinu diligenti cara, or indulgentia abs-
que. — Per omnem honestarum ar.tium cultum. " In the cultivation
of ail liberal studies." Omnem must here be taken in sense with
artium.

Arcebateum ab illecebris, &c. " Independently of his owrn good and
uncorrupted disposition, it served to keep him from the allurements
of the vicious, that from earliest boyhood he had had Massilia as the
seat and directress of his studies, a place where Grecian politeness
wras mingled and well united with provincial moderation and fru-
gality." Observe that the indicative habuerat is necessary, because
it simply assigns the reason for arcebat. The reading habuerit is er-
roneous.— MassiUam. Massilia, by the Greeks called Massalia (Macr-
calia), and now Marseilles, was a celebrated colony of the Pho-
caeans, on the Mediterranean coast of Gaul. It became famous
under the Roman emperors as a school of literature and the sci-
ences.— Locum Graca comitate, &c. Enallage, for locus in quo

mixta erant.

Acrius hausisse. " Would have drunk in too eagerly," i. e., would
have pursued with too much ardor. Observe that hausisse is here
for hausurum fuisse. Pichena conjectured ac juris instead of acrius,
and is followed by some editors; but the study of jurisprudence
was never forbidden to a Roman and a senator. — Ultra quam con-
cession, &c. Observe that by senatori is here properly meant not
an actual senator, but a person of senatorial birth, that is, whose
father was a senator. (Dronke, ad loc.) The study of philosophy
was never held in high estimation by the Romans generally (com-
pare Cic, Off., ii., 1) ; here, however, the reference is to the state of
things under the empire, when philosophical studies, especially those
connected with the doctrines of the Stoics, were viewed by bad
princes with a suspicious eye, as tending to foster sentiments hos-
tile to tyranny. (Walch, ad loc.)

Pulchritudinem ac speciem. "The beauty and the array." Not
a hendiadys, as some maintain, for pulchram speciem. On the con-
trary, species increases the force of pulchritudo. Compare the re-
mark of Bdtticher (Prolegom. ad Tac, p. lxxxi.) : " Avget species vim
pulchritudinis eamque dcsignat qua oculis hominum se prabet." — Ye-
hcmentins quam caute. This is one of the many varieties which

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IV., V. 143

Tacitus employs in expressing a comparison, the positive being
used for the comparative. The more regular construction would
have been vehementius quam cautius. — Retinuitque, quod est difficult-
mum, &c. " And he retained, what is the most difficult of all, frora
the study of wisdom, moderation." The ancient philosophers taught
that nothing is good in itself unless under the regulation of <ppovn
etc. {Plat., Men., p. 88, B. Arist., Eth. ad Nic, ii., 5.) Compare
Horace (Ep., i., 6, 15) :

" Insani sapiens nomen ferat, cequus iniqui,
Ultra quam satis est virtutem si petat ipsam."
Plato (Gorg.j p. 484, c.) gives the best commentary upon this
passage : Qikoaotyia ydproc egtlv, u LuKparec, x^PLEVi &V tic clvtov
fierplug a^nrat kv ry rfkaiia * kdv 6e nspairepu tov deovroc evdiarpcipy,
diCKpdopa tuv dvdpcJTTtJV. 'Hav yap Kal navv evdvyg rj, Kal irofipu rfjg
rfhiniac (fn7ioco<py, dvayKV ttclvtuv dneipov yeyovevai 'early &v XPV fy~
neipov elvai tov iiOCkovra ndXbv KayaQbv Kal evdoKCftov ecscdai avdpa,
k. t. 7i. (Walch, ad loc.)

CHAPTER V.

Prima castrorum rudimenta, &c. " He acquired the rudiments of
military training in Britain, to the full satisfaction of Suetonius Pau-
linus, an active and prudent commander, since he had been selected
(by that general) as one of whose character he might form an esti-
mate through the intimacy of a common mess," i. e., since he had
been chosen by that general a member of his military family, with
the view of forming a more accurate estimate of his abilities amid
the familiar intercourse to which this relation would give rise. It
was usual for young men of rank and talents to be admitted to this
familiar intercourse with the general, as a sort of pupilage, or initi-
ation into the duties of a military life. Contubemium properly de-
notes a certain number of soldiers quartered in the same tent ; and
then a common occupying of one and the same tent, a messing to-
gether, &c.

Suetonio Paulino. Suetonius Paulinus was appointed to the com-
mand of Britain in A.D. 59, during the reign of Nero, and Agricola
probably came with him to the island. At all events, he was in
Britain in A.D. 61. — Approbavit. When a person contracted to per-
form a piece of work, and brought it back completed according to
the terms of the agreement, he was said approbate opus locatori.
(Gronov., ad Plaut., Amphit., Prol. 13.) Hence the figurative em-
ployment of the verb on the present occasion. — Electus. Equiva-

144 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLAe — -CHAP. V.

lent, not to postquam electus erat, but rather to quippe qui electus erat.
— Mstimaret. The verb cestimare implies the attentive contempla-
tion of an object to discover its value and quality. It never means
"to think worthy," or "to esteem." Oberlin is in error when he
says, u cestimare est dignum judicare, non explorare." {Watch, ad
loc.)

Nee Agricola licenter, &c. "Neither did Agricola licentiously,
(on the one hand), after the manner of young men (in-general), who
convert a military life into a scene of dissipation, nor slothfully, (on
the other), avail himself of the rank of tribune for indulging in
pleasures, or leave of absence, or for continuing in ignorance."
Literally, " Nor did Agricola refer the rank of tribune to pleas-
ures," &c. We must not join together titulum et inscitiam tribu-
natus, but ad voluptates et commeatus et inscitiam titulum tribunatus
retulit. To express the full force of the sentence a pause should be
made before inscitiam.

Sed noscere provinciam. " But he proceeded to make himself ac-
quainted with the province." The infinitive noscere, and those that
follow throughout the sentence, are historical ones, and there is no
ellipsis of any verb to govern them. — Nihil appetere in jactationem.
" He sought after nothing for mere display," i. e., he sought after
no employment or situation merely for the purpose of making an
ostentatious display of himself. — Simulque anxius et intentus agere.
" And discharged his duties at one and the same time with solici-
tude and with spirit," i. e., with equal solicitude and spirit. Observe
that anxius refers to things future, intentus to things present.

Exercitatior. " In a more agitated state." Poetical usage. The
prose form of expression would be bello exercitatior. (Cic, de Or.,
ii., 15. Compare Oudendorp, ad Suet., p. 355.) — Trucidati veterani,
incensce colonia. The veterans in the colony of Camulodunum
( Colchester), whose town was completely destroyed. — Intercepti ex-
ercitus. " Our armies were cut off and destroyed." Tacitus refers
here to the legion under Petilius Cerialis, which was coming to the
assistance of the veterans. The disturbance was quelled by Sue-
tonius Paulinus, on his return from Mona. (Ann., xiv., 29, seqq.)
Camulodunum was the only colony in Britain ; hence it has been
proposed to read incensa colonia ; but the alteration is unnecessary,
since Tacitus only appears to have used the plural in an oratorical
manner, as the other words veterani and exercitus are in the plural.
Londinium was not a colony; and Verulamium (St. Alban's) was
a municipium. Besides, we are not told that these places were
burned.

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. V., VI 145

Altcrius. Suetonius Paulinus. — Summa rerum. M The control of
affairs." — Artem et usum et stimulos addidere juvcni. " They, never-
theless, imparted professional skill and experience and incentives
to the youth," i. e., they, nevertheless, improved and animated the
young Agricola. — Ingrata temporibus. " (A desire) uncongenial to
the times." Those, namely, of Nero. — Si?iistra erga eminentes in-
terpretatio. "A sinister construction was put on the conduct of
those who made themselves in any way conspicuous."

CHAPTER VI.

InUrbemdigressus. A.D. 62. — Domitiam Decidianam. The name
Decidiana may probably have arisen from her mother's having been
called Decidia. The names Vespasianus and Domitianus arose in a
similar way. (Consult Walch, ad loc.) — Idque matrimonium, &c.
This marriage secured for him, in seeking preferment, the influence
of the powerful Gens Domitia. — Et invicem se anteponendo. " And
each giving the preference to the other."

Nisi quod in bona uxore, &c. " Save that there is so much more
of what is praiseworthy in a good wife, by how much more of what
is blamable there is in a bad one." Laus is here used for what-
ever is praiseworthy ; and its opposite, culpa, for whatever is blam-
able. Nisi quod, which restricts or corrects something that has
been said before, is often used with an ellipse, which must be sup-
plied by the reader. So here the meaning of the sentence is,
" They both loved one another sincerely, and each gave the other
the preference ; for which both deserve credit ; only we must allow
that in a virtuous wife there is proportionably as much more of
what is praiseworthy, as in a bad wife there is of what is blam-
able," i. e., when placed in comparison with the virtues and vices
of the husband ; because, from the weaker character of woman, the
restraining of any evil propensities is more worthy of praise. (Com-
pare Walch, ad loc.)

Sors qucesturcB. " The lot of the quaestorship." The office of
quaestor was the entrance to all public employments, and it was,
therefore, the first one held by Agricola. The quaestors, with the
exception of the Candidati Principis, drew lots for their several
provinces, that there might be no previous connection between
them and the governors of the same, but that they might serve as
checks upon each other.— Salvium Titianum. Lucius Salvius Otho
Titianus, the elder brother of M. Salvius Otho, the future emperor,
who was at this time serving as proconsul in Lusitania. (Consult
Ann., xii., 52 ; Hist., i., 77, 90 ; ii., 23, 33, 39, 60.)

146 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VI.

Parata peccantibus. "Prepared for delinquents," i. e., where
many of the inhabitants stood ready to be the instruments of the
crimes of their rulers. (Virdung, ad loc.) — Et proconsul, in omnem
aviditatempronus, &c. " And the proconsul, prone to every species
of rapacity, would have purchased the mutual concealment of guilt
by granting Agricola any facility (for plundering) which he might
wish." — Filia. Afterward the wife of Tacitus. — Ante sublatum.
"Previously born." Literally, "previously taken up," i. e., taken
up and acknowledged. New-born infants were placed on the ground ;
and, if the father chose to acknowledge and rear them, he lifted them
up (tollebat). If he did not do so, they were exposed. — Brevi amisit.
He also lost a second son, born twenty years afterward. (Compare
chapter xxviii.)

Inter qucesturam ac tribunatum plebis, &c. " The year between
his quaestorship and tribuneship of the commons, and also the year
of his tribuneship itself, he passed," &c. Observe that annum must
be taken with inter qucest. ac trib., as well as tribunatus. — Quibus
inertia pro sapientia fuit. " In which indolence was wisdom." —
Praturce. Agricola was praetor in A.D. 67. He had been tribune
in A.D. 65, and quaestor in A.D. 63.

.Nee enim jurisdictio obvenerat. " For no actual jurisdiction had
fallen to his lot," i. e., he was neither Praetor urbanus, nor Prcetor
peregrinus, but of the number of those from whom all judicial func-
tions had virtually been taken by the usurpation of the emperors ;
for even the qucestiones perpetuce were in the hands of the senate,
and carried on under imperial direction. Little else, therefore, was
left to the praetors than the management of the games. ( Walch, ad
loc.) With obvenerat, supply sorte.

Ludos et inania honoris, &c. " He exhibited the games and
empty pageantry connected with official preferment, by keeping
within the limit prescribed by proper calculation and the extent of
his own means ; as, on the one hand, far removed from lavish ex-
penditure, so, on the other, nearer to an honorable fame," i. e., he
exhibited them in such a way that, though celebrated without any
great 'profusion, they would be extolled for their splendor, rather
than passed over in silence, as though exhibited in a paltry manner.
The games, &c, referred to here were those exhibited by the prae
tors on attaining to office, and on which these magistrates usually
spent enormous sums in order to ingratiate themselves with the
people, and thus pave the way to still higher preferment. — Modo
rationis atque abundantice. This is the uniform reading of the earlier
editions. One of the MSS., however, has medio, altered probably by

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VI., VII. 147

some copyist from the more difficult modo. If we adopt this latter
reading, with Becker and Hertel, the meaning will be, " by pursuing
a middle course between rational expenditure and profusion." Lip-
sius conjectures moderoJionis atque abundantice, giving duzit the force
ofputavit, which Oberlin and others adopt, supplying rem esse. The
true reading, however, is the one which we have given. The ex-
planation is Waleh's. — Duxit. Observe that ducere is here equiva-
lent to edere. The notion of leading, a procession, &c., gave rise to
that of " taking the lead in," " presiding over," " managing," &c.
The verb r/yeladac is used in a similar manner in Greek.

Diligentissima conquisitione, &c. Not only were the temples de-
stroyed by the conflagration in the reign of Nero ; but, when Nero
himself was in want of money for the erection of his palace, he de-
spoiled the temples of their offerings. {Ann., xv., 38, seqq.) Taci-
tus means to say that Agricola succeeded in recovering most of
the treasure from the hands of those who had appropriated it dur-
ing the confusion, except such part as had been plundered by Nero.
These conquisitiones sacrorum were not unfrequently instituted.
(Compare Liv., xxv., 7.) — Ne sensisset. " Should not have felt,"
i. e., did not feel. There is no enallage of tense here, as some sup-
pose. The reference is merely to what was passing at the time in
the mind of Agricola before the object in view was accomplished.
He exerted himself to bring it about, that the state should not have
felt the sacrilege, &c, after the matter might have been brought to
a close. (Walther, ad loc.)

CHAPTER VII.

Sequens annus. A.D. 69. — Classis Othoniana, &c. The affair
here alluded to occurred in the month of March, A.D. 69, during the
brief reign of Otho, and his contest with Vitellius. The cruelties
and depredations committed on the coast of Italy by this fleet are de-
scribed in lively colors by Tacitus (Hist., ii., 12, seq.). — Intemelios.
"The Intemelii," i. e., the territory of the Intemelii. The name
of the town itself was Albium Intemelium. Thus, Strabo remarks
(iv., 6), ttoIlc tvuEyedrjg " 'Aa6lov 'Ivre/ieTaov, nal ol KaroLKovvreg 'lvre-
fie/uoi. The attack, therefore, was on Intemelium and its vicinity,
and was a consequence of the ill planned measures of defence
adopted by Marius Maturus, the procurator of Liguria, who had gone
over from Otho to Vitellius. The modern name of Intemelium is
Vintimiglia.

In pradiis suis. " On her own estates." — Causa. " The inciting

148 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VII.

cause." — Ad solennia pietatis. " To discharge the solemn duties
of filial piety." — Affectati imperii. "Of the empire's being aimed
at." Walch, less correctly, refers this to an actual seizure of the
empire. (Consult Walther, ad loc.) — Ac statim in partes transgressus
est. " And soon after went over to his party." The adverb statim
here, like moz, modo, nuper, &c., elsewhere in Tacitus, must not be
taken in too strict a sense. At least three months must have
elapsed between the death of his mother and his joining the party
of Vespasian, as will appear from the following dates. Thus, Otho's
death, after the battle of Bedriacum, took place in April, A.D. 69
(Hist., ii., 55) ; Vitellius visited the battle-field forty days after the
battle (Hist., ii., 70) ; and Vitejlius's entry into Rome took place on
the 18th of July (Hist., ii., 91).

Initia principatus, &c. " The commencement of the new reign,
and the welfare of the city, Mucianus directed." Observe here the
peculiar force of statum, and compare Dial, de Or., 11 ; Ann., iii., 28.
Vespasian was conducting the war against the revolted Jews with
great success, when he was urged by Mucianus, then governor of
Syria, and by his own son Titus, to assume the sovereignty ; and,
during his stay at Alexandrea, he was proclaimed emperor by Ti-
berius Alexander, the governor of Egypt. He forthwith prepared
for war against Vitellius, leaving his son Titus to conduct the siege
of Jerusalem. On the overthrow of the forces of Vitellius by An-
tonius Primus, near Bedriacum, this latter commander marched to
Rome at the end of December, A.D. 69, so that he first, in reality,
had charge of affairs there ; but in the following January Mucianus
arrived, and acquired all the power. (Hist., iv., 11.)

Admodum juvene Domitiano. He was at that time eighteen years
old. — Tantum licentiam usurpante. " Claiming only the privilege of
indulging in licentiousness." Domitian became afterward one of
the most ferocious and detestable of the Roman emperors.

Missum ad delectus agendos. In the beginning of A.D. 70, Agric-
ola set out for Britain, probably in the spring of the same year. —
Integreque ac strenue versatum. " And who had conducted himself
in that employment with fidelity and vigor." — Vicesimce legioni, &c.
The reason why, of the four legions posted in Britain (the second,
ninth, fourteenth, and twentieth), the second only took the oath
promptly, is given by Tacitus elsewhere (Hist., iii., 44). The twen-
tieth legion was staying among the Cornavii, at Deva (now Chester).
— TJbi decessor seditiose agere narrabatur. " (A station) in which his
predecessor was reported to be acting seditiously." The individual
here referred to was Roscius Crelius. For an account of the affair,

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VII., VIII. 149

consult Hist., i., 60. Vettius Bolanus was sent to supply the place
of Trebellius, whom Ccelius had forced to fly to Vitellius, at Lyons.

Quippe legatis quoque consularibus, &c. " For this legion was un-
manageable, and formidable even unto the consular lieutenants,'*
i. e., even unto Trebellius Maximus and Vettius Bolanus. The le-
gati consular es, in the time of the emperors, were individuals who
had been consuls, and were governors of the province and com-
manders over all the legions stationed in it. On the other hand,
the legati pratorii were those who had filled the office of praetor, and
were in command of only a single legion. — Nimia. A very expres-
sive term ; literally, " too much for." — Legatus prcetorius. Roseius
Ccelius. (Hist, i., 60.)

Incertum, suo an militum ingenio. Either because he did not know
how to command, or they to obey.

CHAPTER VIII.

Dignum est. Some have proposed esset here instead of est ; but
though this would do very well if it were merely a remark of Taci-
tus, founded upon past events, est is equally well suited to the time
in which Tacitus was writing ; for, after the death of Agricola,
Britain, or at least Caledonia, had thrown off the yoke. (Hist., i.,
2.) The name of a second Calgacus, the Caledonian Arviragus,
was renowned at Rome. (Juv., iv., 127.)— Ne incresceret. " That
he might not grow too much into notice," i. e., become too con-
spicuous, and appear to eclipse his commander. It is better to re-
fer incresceret to Agricola than to ardorem, as some do. Ernesti
correctly remarks that the words ne incresceret would form a pleo-
nasm in the latter case.

Brevi deinde Britannia, &c. In A.D. 71. Petilius Cerialis had
before this been lieutenant of the ninth legion, under Suetonius
Paulinus. (Ann., xiv., 32.) He was afterward one of the generals
of Vespasian, to whom he was related (Hist., iii., 59), and was act-
ively engaged in the seizure of Rome (lb., iii., 78, seq.). He was
sent into Germany ; and, after the end of his campaign against Civ-
ilis, was appointed to succeed Bolanus. (Hist., iv., 68, 71, 75, 78,
86; v., 14, 21, 23.) — Spatium exemplorum. "Room for displaying
themselves as examples."

Communicabat. "Shared with him," i. e., with Agricola. Sup-
ply cum Mo. This verb does not appear to be used elsewhere by
itself in this way. Thucydides (i., 39) employs Koivuaavjaq and
ueradidovai in a similar manner. (Walch", ad loc.) — Ex eventu.

150 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VIII., IX.

" From the issue," i. e., in consequence of the successful termina-
tion of some affair. Equivalent to " quum eventus id suasisset."
(Hand, ad Tursell., ii., p. 659.)

Nee Agricola umquam, &c. " Nor did Agricola ever exult in (such)
exploits in order to increase his own renown." Observe here the
peculiar construction of in with the accusative, and compare Liv.,
xxi., 43 : "In hanc tarn opimam mercedem, agite .... arma capite."
Generally, in the older writers, when in or ad is used after a verb
to express an object, a participle is subjoined. Others join in
suam famam with factis. (Walch, ad loc.) — Ad auctorem et ducem,
ut minister, &c. " He always, as a subordinate officer, gave the
honor of his good fortune to the individual with whom his orders
originated, and who was likewise his leader." — Nee extra gloriam
erat. Observe that nee is here equivalent to nee tamen. The sense
of the whole clause is simply this : " et invidiam effugiebat, et glo-
riam assequebatur." (Dronke, ad loc,)

CHAPTER IX.

Revertentem ab legatione legionis. " On returning from the com-
mand of the legion," i. e., the twentieth legion, in Britain. — Provin*
cice Aquitanice. Gallia Comata comprised three provinces, Aquita-
nia, Gallia Lugdunensis or Celtica, and Belgica. Aquitania was
the tract between the Garonne, the Loire, the Pyrenees, and the
Cevennes. It was annexed to the Roman Empire under Augustus.
(Cas., B. G., i., 1 ; Ptol., ii., 7.) — Splendidce in primis dignitatis, &c.
" An office of the first distinction, on account of the importance of
the command itself, and the hopes it gave of the consulship, to
which he (Vespasian) had destined him." After destinarat, supply
•eum, a harsh ellipsis, however, as Walch correctly styles it.

Subtilitatem. " Acuteness." — Quia castrensis jurisdictio, &c.
" Because the mode of administering justice in a camp, careless
(respecting the niceties of law), and more blunt (in its character),
and doing most things in an off-hand way, does not call into exer-
cise the subtle distinctions of the bar." Observe here the employ*7
ment of the subjunctive mood, exerceat, as indicating the sentiments
of others, not those of Tacitus himself. It is the same, therefore,
as saying, " does not call into exercise, as they think."

Agricola naturali prudentia, &c. " Agricola, (however), by dint
of native sagacity, decided with easy promptness and with justice,
though in the midst of civilians." Tacitus means that the summary
and off-hand mode of deciding cases, to which Agricola had been

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IX. 151

accustomed in military life, did not at all interfere with his useful-
ness as a judge when he came to preside in a civil tribunal. The
allusion here is to the conventus juridici, or circuit courts (assizes),
in which Agricola, as governor of the province, was now called to
preside. (Gronov., Observ., iii., 22.) — Togatos. The term togati is
here equivalent, in effect, to litigantes ; for suits could only be carried
on in the toga, and in Latin. It does not mean lawyers or advo-
cates alone, or citizens merely in opposition to soldiers. (Compare
Walch, ad loc.)

Jam vero. " From this time, indeed." — Conventus. " The cir-
cuits." In order to facilitate the administration of justice, a Roman
province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of
which was called conventus, forum, or jurisdictio. At these conventus
litigant parties applied to the proconsul, or governor, who presided
in them, and this officer selected a number of judges, from the per-
sons assembled, to try their causes. The proconsul pronounced sen-
tence according to the views of the judges, who were his assessors
or counsel. {Diet. Ant., s. v.)— Officio. "The claims of official
duty." — Nulla ultra potestatis persona. "There was no playing the
part of the man in power after this." Observe here the figurative
meaning of persona. Its literal signification is " a theatrical mask,"
whence it obtains the present sense of sustaining a character, or pla}T-
ing a part. — Tristitiam, et arrogantiam et avaritiam exuerat. " He
had, (then), completely laid aside official sternness, and the rigid
requirement of respect, and unflinching severity in exacting what
was due to the state." By tristitia is here meant, not gloominess
of disposition, nor asperity of manners, but the sternness which be-
seems a magistrate and high public functionary. So, again, by ar-
rogantia, as here employed, we are to understand, not the assump-
tion of what does not belong to a person, but the rigid exaction of
all the respect and attention to which he has a claim. The term
avaritia has here its ordinary meaning. Agricola was not naturally
avarus, any more than he was tristis or arrogans ; but he was
obliged to comply with the commands of Vespasian, who was likely
enough to replenish his exhausted coffers by exactions from this
wealthy province. (Compare Hist., ii., 84; Suet., Vesp., 16.) Ava-
rus was often equivalent to parum liberalis. So Cicero says, " Qui
hoc fecit avarum possumus existimare, crimen in eo constituere non pos-
sumus." (In Verr., iii., 16.) So that avaritia, in the present passage,
implies the greatest severity in exacting tribute, or what was due
to the state. Oberlin and others, misunderstanding the force of
vsaritia. as here emploved, give exuere the meaning of <(to be fell-

152 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IX.

tirely free from," and make the language of Tacitus have a general
application to the character of Agricola. There is no authority, how-
ever, for such an interpretation, and, besides, it would clash with
what comes after, namely, " integritatem atque abstinentiam in tanto
viro referre, injuria virtutum fuerit." (Compare Watch, ad loc.) — Fa-
cilitas. "Affability."

Indulgent. "Court." — Per artem. By means of such arts as
governors frequently employ to secure the good- will of their pro-
vincial subjects. There is an allusion, perhaps, also, to addresses
of thanks from the inhabitants of the province to the emperor, dur-
ing and after the time of administration. (Compare Dio Cass., lvi.,
25 ; Ann., xv., 22.) — Collegas. Magistrates who were created at
the same comitia, and, when these were no longer held, by the sen-
ate and emperors, were called collegce. So in Hist., ii., 10, the col-
leagues of Mucianus are the governors of Judaea, Cappadocia, and
Egypt ; as, here, the colleagues of Agricola are all the provincial
prefects, especially those appointed over the Gallic and Spanish
provinces. — Procurator es. Each province had only one procurator
at a time, and it does not seem that they were often changed ; so
that this plural must imply disputes such as commonly arise be-
tween governors and procurators. — Et vincere inglorium, et adteri
sordidum arbitrabatur. " He thought that (in such disputes as these)
both to conquer was attended with no glory, and to be worsted
was a positive disgrace." Observe here the peculiar force of adteri,
which answers thus to the Greek elaaoovodai, and is used of any
infringement upon a person's dignity, or the respect and attention
to which he has a claim.

Minus triennium. Supply quam after minus. (Zumpt, § 485.) —
Ac statim ad spem consulatus revocatus est. " And was immediately
thereafter recalled to the prospect of the consulship," i. e., with the
prospect of obtaining the consulship. — Comitante opinione. " Public
opinion accompanying him," i. e., while at the same time a popular
opinion prevailed. Compare the Homeric Kvdoc birndel. (II., xvii.,
251, &e.) — Nullis in hoc suis sermonibus. " No remarks having
been made by himself to this effect." Observe that in hoc is here
equivalent to ad id, and compare the Greek etc rovro. The con-
struction in nullis sermonibus is the ablative absolute. — Par. " Equal
to the station."

Aliquando et elegit. " Sometimes it has even fixed a choice."
There is a peculiar force here in elegit, and a blending, as it were,
of the perfect and aorist, the tense not only indicating what some-
times has been done, but also what is accustomed to be done. ( Wa'ther,

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IX., X. 153

ad loc. — Ramshorn, L. G., <J 164, p. 401, b.) — Consul. "When con-
sul." This was in A.D. 77, when Vespasianus Augustus for the
eighth time, and Titus Caesar for the sixth, entered upon the con-
sulate, and were succeeded on the 1st of July by Domitianus Caesar,
then consul for the sixth time, and Cn. Julius Agricola. — Egregice
turn speifiliam, &c. Agricola's daughter was almost fourteen. Ob-
serve the force of turn, as referring to the hopes that were then form-
ed of her, and that were subsequently realized. Tacitus was at this
time in his 25th year. — Adjecto pontificatus sacerdotiot This never
ceased to be reckoned a mark of distinction.

CHAPTER X.

Multis s emptor ibus . As Caesar (B. G., iv., 21, seqq. ; v., 8, seqq.,
&c), Pliny (H. iV., iv., 16), Ptolemy (iii., 2), Diodorus Siculus (v.,
21, 22), Agathemerus (ii., 4), Strabo (ii., p. 116, 120, 128 ; iii., p.
137, 195 ; iv., p. 199, 200), Livy (i., 105), Fabius Rusticus, Pompo-
nius Mela, and others. — Non in comparationem cur a ingeniive. " Not
that a comparison may be instituted between my accuracy or talent,
and that of others." Compare the explanation of Ernesti : " Non
ea de causa, ut comparatio inde fiatmei ingenii et aliorum." — Perdomita
est. " Was it completely subdued." — Itaque. Equivalent to et ita.
— Rerum fide. " With fidelity of facts," i. e., from the evidence of
actual discoveries.

Spatio ac cozlo. " In situation and in climate." The old geogra-
phers gave the northern coast of Spain a northwesterly direction ;
and, unacquainted with the extent to which Bretagne reached west-
ward, made the coasts of Gaul and Germany run in an almost uni-
form northeasterly direction. Tacitus seems to have placed Britain
in the angle thus formed. He means to say here that it is situated
between nearly the same degrees, both of latitude and longitude, as
those parts of the coast of Spain and Germany opposite to which it
lies. He (chap, xxiv.) imagined Ireland to lie between Britain and
Spain, though there is no reason to suppose that he placed it on the
southwest of Britain. Compare Dio Cassius (xxxix., 50) : fH de
X&pa Qvttj an£xEL ^v TVC yneipov ttjc KeJiTiKijc Kara Muplvovc cradi-
ovc irevTr/KOVTa teal Terpanooiovc to Gwro/iurarov ■ TzaprjKec de ivapa
irjv "koiTzrjv Taharlav, Kai napa rrjv 'Idvpcav okiyov ndaav eg re to ire"k-
ayoc uvarelvovGa. (Compare Walch, ad loc.)

In orient em Germania, in Occident em Hispanice. u On the east to-
ward Germany, on the west toward Spain." Observe that Germa-
nics and Hispania are datives depending on obtenditur. — Gallis in

154 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. X.

meridiem eliam inspicitur. "It is even seen by the Gauls on the
south." Compare the explanation of Dronke : " non solum obtend-
itur, sed etiam inspicitur: inspicere autem est conspicere ; Hist., ii.,
6, ' auditique saepius in Syria Judaeaque Caesares quam inspecti.' " —
Nuilis contra terris. Examples of ablatives absolute, used in this
manner, are found in other writers besides Tacitus ; as, " Bonis
tribunis plebis" (Cic, Phil., i., 10) : " Multorum eo statu, qui diutur-
nus esse non posset" (Liv., xxxvi., 6).

Livius. In his 105th book (now lost, but of which we have the
Epitome), in which he gave an account of Julius Caesar's expedition
into Britain. — Fabius Rusticus. A contemporary of Claudius and
Nero, and a near friend of Seneca, more so than was consistent
with the unbiased statement of truth, which should characterize the
historian. ( Ann., xiii., 20. ) He wrote the history of his own times.
Tacitus quotes him again in his history of Nero (xiv., 2 ; xv., 61).
If his history extended over the reigns of Caligula and Nero, he prob-
ably mentioned Britain when speaking of the expedition of Claud-
ius (A.D. 43). It does not seem that he commenced his history from
the point where Livy left off, as has been imagined ; for Tacitus
does not mention him in his earlier books. He could not have pub-
lished his history before the death of Nero. (Consult Ann., xiv., 2.)

Oblonga scutula. " To an oblong four-sided figure." By scutula
is properly meant a small four-sided dish, holding eight ounces of
liquid. (Cato, R. R., 68.) It is then applied, figuratively, to denote
any four-sided figure ; and on the present occasion, with the addi-
tion of the epithet oblonga, designates what geometers call a trapezi-
um. Compare the explanation of its shape as given by Censorinus :
" Heteromeros quadrangulum, nee later a habet paria, nee angulos rectos,
simile scutellce." (De Die Nat., 18.) — Et est ea fades citra Caledoniam,
&c. "And this is, in reality, its appearance, exclusive of Caledonia,
and hence the popular report respecting its form has passed over (and
been applied) unto the whole island." Fama is here the nomina-
tive, and we must supply with it a genitive from facies. In univer-
sum is equivalent to in universam Britanniam. The whole clause is
paraphrased as follows by Walch : " Fama ejus faciei, non in una
parte Britannice constitit, sed in universam Britanniam transgressa est."

Sed immensum et enorme, &c. " But an immense and boundless
extent of land, and jutting out from that part where the coast now
almost comes to an end, is gradually contracted, as it were, into
the form of a wedge." Observe that the words extremo jam litore
are not to be joined, by means of the figure called hjperbaton, with
vclut in cuncum tcnuatur, but with terrarum procurrcntium. In the

ttOIEd UN THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. X. 155

words extremo jam litore Tacitus alludes to the narrow isthmus be-
tween the Clota {Clyde) and Bodotria {Forth), the southern bound-
ary of Caledonia. Tacitus had formed a more correct notion of
the shape of Britain than either Caesar, Strabo, or Ptolemy.

Novissimi maris. " Of the farthest sea." — Tunc primum. Re-
ferring to the time of Agricola. Compare Bio Cassius (lxvi., 20) :
Tvaloc '\ov?iLog 'AypLKO?i,ac irdvra Karedpafte, Kai Trp&Toe ye 'Fufialov
uv lofiev eyvo rovd\ 6tl i] Bperravla TZEpippvToc eon. — Incognitas ad
id tempus insulas, &c. According to Eusebius, Claudius had al-
ready annexed these islands to his dominions ; and the same is said
by Eutropius (vii., 13), Orosius (vii., 5), Bede {Hist. Angl., i., 3),
Gildas, and others, and certainly a report of their existence had
reached Rome by that time. Mela estimates their number at thirty,
Pliny at forty ; so that incognitas must be here equivalent to leviter
or non penitus cognitas ; as it is in Cicero {de Orat., ii., 24), " cans as
dicunt incognitas." Ignotus has a similar force in the same writer
{de Or at., i., 39) : " Jus applicationis oh s cur um sane et ignotum patcj "ac-
tum atque illustratum est." (Compare de Orat., i., 42 ; Liv., xxviii.,
44.)

Dispecta est et Thule, &c. "Thule, also, was but just discerned
in the distance, which snow and winter were accustomed hitherto
to conceal from the view." Thule is variously identified by differ-
ent authors with Mainland, Norvjay, and Iceland. The last is the
most probable ; as the character and position of Iceland agree best
with the description of the situation of Thule given by Strabo and
Pliny. Observe that the verb dispici is used when speaking of any
thing which can not be distinguished without difficulty. The text
is doubtful in quam hactenus nix et hiems abdebat. We have given
the reading which makes the best sense. Some editions have Di~
specta est et Thule quadamtenus ; nix et hiems adpetebat, " Thule, also,
was to some extent descried ; snow and winter were seeking to
make it their own." Other variations have also been proposed,
with regard to which, consult Walther, ad loc.

Pigrum et grave remigantibus. " Sluggish and laborious to row-
ers." It would appear that the first circumnavigators of Britain,
in order, no doubt, to enhance the idea of their dangers and hard-
ships, had represented the Northern Sea as in so thickened and
half solid a state, that the oars could scarcely be worked, or the
water agitated by the winds. Tacitus, however, in what follows,
rather chooses to explain its stagnant condition from the want of
winds, and the difficulty of moving so great a body of waters. But
the fact, taken either way, is erroneous ; as this sea is never <:b-

156 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. X., XI.

served frozen, and is remarkably stormy and tempestuous. (Aikin,
ad loc.) — Ne ventis quidem perinde attolli. " Is not even raised by
the winds, as it is elsewhere." Observe the force of perinde, and
compare Germ., 5 : " Possessione et usu haud perinde adficiuntur."

Rariores. " Are (here) of more rare occurrence." — Et profunda
moles continui maris, &c. " And the deep mass of one continued
expanse of sea is more slowly set in motion." The expression
continuum mare means the main sea, just as continens terra signifies
the main land, or continent.

Naturam oceani, &c. The ebb and flow of the tide in the North-
ern Ocean was a matter of some astonishment to the Romans, as
in the Mediterranean there is scarcely any tide at all. (Plin., H.
N., xvi., 1.) — Multi retulere. As, for example, Pytheas of Massilia
(ap. Plut. plac. Philos., iii., 17), Pliny (H. iV., ii., 97, 99), Seneca
(Qucest. Nat., iii., 28), and Lucan (Phars., I, 409).

Nusquam latius dominari mare, &c. " That the sea nowhere ex-
ercises a more extensive dominion ; that it bears along many cur-
rents in this direction and in that ; and that not as far as the shore
merely does it increase or is it drawn back, but that it flows far in-
land, and winds about, and insinuates itself even among hills and
mountains, as if in its native bed," i. e., its ebbings and flowings
are not confined to the shore, but it penetrates into the heart of the
country, and works its way among hills and mountains, as in its
native bed. (Aikin, ad loc.) The great number of friths and inlets
of the sea, which almost cut through the northern parts of the island,
as well as the height of the tides on the coast, render this language
of Tacitus peculiarly proper. — Fluminum. Tacitus here refers to
marine currents, which were known to the ancients, as we learn
from Mela (iii., 3). — Velut in suo. Equivalent, in fact, to veluti jugis
montibusque in suo. The ancients, as well as the moderns, taught
that the bed of the sea, like the continent, contained valleys and
mountains, the summits of which formed rocks and islands. (Plin.y
ii., 102; vi., 22.)

CHAPTER XL
Indigenes. Caesar mentions that the inhabitants of the interior*"
parts of the island were supposed to be of indigenous origin. (B.
G., v., 12.) — Ut inter barbaros. " As (usual) among barbarians."
Supply fieri solet. — Habitus corporum. " The characteristics of their
frames," i. e., their physical appearance. — Atque ex eo argumenta.
"And from this you may draw arguments (as to their origin)."

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XI. 157

Supply colligas. — Namque. There is the same difference between
nam and namque as between enim and etenim, yap and nal yap.
Namque may be frequently translated, as in the present passage,
" thus, for instance."

Rutila Calcdoniam habitantium coma, &c. Compare the descrip-
tion given of the physical appearance of the Germans, in the Ger-
mania, 4. — Silurum colorati vultus. " The swarthy complexions
of the Silures." The Silures answer to the people of Wales.
They occupied what are now the counties of Brecknock, Glamorgan,
Monmouth, Hereford, and Radnor. Some commentators refer the
expression colorati vultus to the staining of the face and body. This,
however, was not a custom peculiar to the Silures, but common to
all the Britons, and can not, therefore, be meant here ; on the con-
trary, colorati refers to the dark complexion produced by the rays
of the sun. Thus we have the expressions, Indi colorati, Seres col-
orati, &c. — Torti. " Curly." The torti crines are what Brotier
terms " les cheveux crepus."

Proximi Gallis et similes sunt. " Those nearest the Gauls resem-
ble, also, the inhabitants of that country." Literally, " are also like
(them)." Of these, the inhabitants of the modern Kent are most
favorably spoken of by Caesar : " Ex his omnibus longe sunt human-
issimi, qui Cantium incolunt, qua regio est maritima omnis, neque mul-
tum a Gallica differ unt consuetudine" (Cas., B. G., v., 14.)

Seu durante originis vi, &c. M Either because the influence of a
common origin still remains, or because, the lands advancing till
they lie opposite one another, climate has given this character to
their frames," i. e., similarity of climate has given a similarity of
character to their frames. With habitum supply eum. Tacitus
means, that the coasts of the two countries, which at first run in
different directions, gradually approach one another, till at the point
where they end they lie opposite and parallel. Observe that di-
versa is here used in the same sense as adversa. Compare Ann.,
xiii., 57; Hist., iii., 13, &c. — In universum tamen cestimanti. Com-
pare Germ., 6. This use of the dative is exceedingly common in
Greek. (Compare Herod., i., 14; v., 88. Thucyd., i., 10, &c.)

Eorum sacra dcprehendas, &c. " You may discover traces of their
religious system in the firm belief (of the Britons) in certain super-
stitions." Observe that eorum here refers to the Gauls, the people
mentioned at the close of the previous sentence. The superstitious
rites meant are particularly the mysterious and bloody solemnities
of the Druids. From the language of Tacitus it would seem to
follow that Druidism came into Britain from Gaul, and this, no doubt,

158 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XI., XII.

is the correct view of the matter. According to Caesar, however,
the institution originated in Britain (B. G., vi., 13). The parent
home of Druidism is now thought to have been the remote East.
(Consult Barth, Ueber die Druiden der Kelten, p. 133, seqq.) — Super-
stitionum persuasione. Equivalent to persuasione de supers titionibus.
So per suasio falsa scientice (Quintil., i., 1, 8). Examples of a similar
use of the ablative, without a participle to soften it, are found in
" Non honore Galba" (Hist., i., 44): " Odio, metu" (Hist., i., 51):
" Amore etjide" (Agric, 41).

In deposcendis periculis, &c. This tallies precisely with Caesar's
account of the Gauls. (B. G., iii., 19.) — Plus ferocice. "More of
martial spirit." Observe that ferocice is here equivalent to virtutis
or foriitudinis. In chapter xxxi. virtus and ferocia are joined to-
gether. So the adjective ferox does not mean " ferocious," but
" proud and dauntless." (Compare Dronke, ad loc. ; Cort. ad Sail.,
Jug:, c. 106.)

Nam Gallos, &c. Compare Germ., 28. — Otio. " Repose from
warfare," i. e., peace. — Quod Britannorum olim metis, &c. " Which
has happened to those of the Britonswho have been long subdued,"
i. e., the subjects of Cynobellinus, conquered by Claudius. ( Walch,-
ad loc.)

CHAPTER XII.

Honestior auriga, clientes propugnant. " The more honorable in-
dividual is charioteer ; his vassals fight for him," i. e., from1 the char-
iot. Among the Greeks and Trojans the rjvioxog was the less noble
of the two. But compare Diod. Sic., v., 21, 29. — Olim regibus pa-
rebant, &c. " Formerly they obeyed kings, now they are torn
asunder by the nobles with parties and factions." — Nunc per princi-
pes factionibus, &e. We have evidence of this in the frequency
with which British princes, as Adminius, Bericus, &c, were com-
pelled to take refuge among the Romans (c. 24). Observe that tra-
huntur is for distrahuntur.— In commune non consulunt. Compare
Germ., 33 : " Nihil jam prcestare fortuna majus potest quam hostium
discordiam."

Rarus duabus tribusque civitatibus, &c. " An assembly of two or
three states, for the purpose of repelling some common danger, is
of rare occurrence." By conventus is here meant an assembly for
the formation of plans torching their common interests. — Duabus
tribusque. The substitution of ve for que, as introduced by Pichena

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XII. 159

and Acidalius, is unnecessary. So uspem metumque" (Hist., i., 62) ,
" Capti c&sique" (Liv., xxiii., 1) ; " Quid faciendum fugiendumque
sir (Cic, Off., I, 28) ; Ale teal rpic (Plat., Phcedr., 235, A.), &c.

Coelum crebris imbribus, &c. A remark still fully applicable to the
climate of Britain. Strabo says that the sun generally shone there
only for a few hours, and that in the morning and evening it was
hid in clouds or fogs. — Asperitas frigorum abest. Compare Cae-
sar (B. G., v., 12) : " Loca sunt temperatiora quam in Gallia, remis-
sioribus frigoribus." — Ultra nostri orbis mensuram. "Beyond the
measure of those of our part of the world." For ultra mensuram
dierum nostri orbis. Elliptical expressions of this kind are not un-
common. Pliny says that in Italy the longest day lasts fifteen
hours ; in Britain, seventeen. (H. N., ii., 75.)

Quod si nubes non officiant, &c. " They say that provided, there-
fore, clouds do not interpose, the brightness of the sun is seen dur-
ing the night, and that it neither sets nor rises, but moves across
the sky." If by fulgor solis we could understand the light arising
from the refracted rays of the sun, this would be strictly true ; but

the words nee occidere teed transire are hardly applicable to

.this, and must refer to the sun himself. The same idea occurs in
Eumenius (Paneg. in Const., 9), " Ut sol ipse, qui nobis videtur oc~
cidere, ibi appareat prcEterire."

Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum, &c. Consult notes on Germ.,
45. — Non erigunt tenebras. " Do not cast their shadow in a per-
pendicular direction." — Prater. " With the exception of." — Patiens
frugum. For a long time Britain was the granary for the Roman
army on the Rhine. Zosimus (iii., 5) speaks of eight hundred ves-
sels employed, by order of the Emperor Julian, in transporting corn
to Germany. (Compare Amm. Marcell., xviii., 2, 3, and Vales., ad
loc.) — Tarde mitescunt, &c. "They ripen slowly, they come forth
quickly," i. e., growth is quick, but maturation slow. With mites-
cunt and proveniunt the term frvges must be mentally supplied. —
Cxli. " The atmosphere." Compare Pliny (H. N, ii., 38) : " Nam-
que et hoc ccelum appellavere major es quod alio nomine air a, omne quod
vitali simile vilalem hunc spiritum fundit."

Fert Britannia durum, &c. Strabo (iv., p. 138) agrees with Tac-
itus. Cicero, on the contrary, says, "Illud cognitum est, neque ar-
genti scripulum esse ullum in ilia insula." (Ep. ad Att., iv., 16.)
Cambden speaks of gold mines in Cumberland and Scotland, and of
silver mines near Ilfracomb. — Gignit et oceanus margarita, &c.
Pliny, speaking of the British pearls, says, " In Britannia parvos et de-
color es nasci cerium est." (H. iV., ix., 35.) Bede, on the contrary,

I
160 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XII., XIII.

says, " In quibus sunt musculoe, qvibus inclusam scepe margaritam omnis
colons quidem optimam inveniunt, i. e., Rubicundi et purpurei, et hyacin-
tkini et prasini, sed maxime candidi." (Hist. Angl., i., 1.) The pearls
which are found in Caernarvonshire, in the River Conway, and in
Cumberland, in the River Irt, are equal to the best of those brought
from the Indian Ocean ; but they are so few and small as not to re-
pay the trouble of searching for them.

Artem abesse legentibus. "That skill is wanting to those who
gather them," i. e., skill in removing them from the rocks. Com-
pare Pliny (H. N.9 ix., 35): " Altius merscz h&rent, nee nisi vi ac
summo periculo avelluntur legentibus.''1 — In rubro mari. " In the In-
dian Ocean." Between Ceylon and Persia. The rubrum mare (7
'Epvdpa -&a"kaaca) of the ancients included both the sinus Persicus
and the sinus Arabicus. Compare Pliny (H. N., vi., 23) : M Quod
in duos dividitur sinus, Persicum ab oriente, et Arabicum ulteriorem ex
adverso." — Prout expulsa sint. " As they have been thrown up by the
sea." — Naturam margaritis deesse. "That a proper nature is want-
ing to the pearls (of this country)." By natura is here meant what
the Greeks term tzolotvc (pvaiKrj, thdfris, in the present instance,
brilliancy and whiteness, which the Indian pearls possess. (Com-
pare Walch, ad loc.)

CHAPTER XIII.

Ipsi Britanni. From an account of the island, he now proceeds
to one of the inhabitants themselves. Compare a similar employ-
ment of the pronoun ipse in the Germania, 2. — Impigre obeunt.
"Cheerfully undergo." — Igitur. "For." This particle has here
the force of enim, and is intended to be explanatory of what pre-
cedes, namely, jam domiti ut pare ant, &c. (Consult Hand, ad Turr
sellin., iii., p. 186, 187.)

Britanniam ingressus. In B.C. 54 and 55. — Mox bella civilia.
Supply fuere. — Principum. " Of the leaders." — Consilium id divus
Augustus, &c. "This the deified Augustus called policy, Tibe-
rius an injunction (of his predecessor)," i. e., of Augustus. Com-
pare Ann., i., 77: " Augustus addiderat consilium coercendi intra
terminos imperii." Strabo (ii., p. 115; iv., p. 200) assigns the rea-
son for this conduct in relation to Britain. The Romans had
nothing to fear from that island, nor would much advantage be de-
rived from the possession of it ■ and, at the same time, it could
not be conquered and kept in subjection without considerable ex-
pense. We must, besides this, also not overlook the friendly re*

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIII. 161

lations which had been established meantime between Augustus
and Tenuantius, the son of Cassivelaunus. Cynobellinus, the son
of Tenuantius, w7as brought up at Rome, and accompanied Augus-
tus in several campaigns.

Agitasse C. Casarem de intranda Britannia, &c. " That Caius
Csesar had meditated the design of invading Britain is quite certain ;
(and he would have done so) had he not been precipitate in forming
schemes, fickle in changing his mind, and had not his mighty at-
tempts against Germany proved fruitless." (Consult Suet., Calig.,
46 ; Dio Cass., lix., 25.) This expedition was undertaken not from
Gaul, but from the Batavian shores. The light-house, which Ca-
ligula built, was at the second mouth of the Rhine, now choked
with sand, where the remains of it still exist, and are called by
sailors the Calla-Thurm. — Ni velox ingenio, &c. Observe the ellip-
tical form of the sentence, where we must supply et intrasset, or
something equivalent. There is an ellipsis, also, of fuisset after velox
ingenio and mobilis pxnitentia. — Ingentes adversus Germaniam, &c.
Consult note on Germ., 37.

Auctor operis. "Was the #ne that carried these designs into
effect." Literally, " was the author of the work." A British refu-
gee, named Bericus, advised Claudius not to miss the opportunity
of subduing Britain. For an account of the successes of Claudius,
or, rather, of A. Plautius and Vespasian, in A.D. 43, consult Hist.,,
iii., 44 ; Suet., Claud., 17 ; Dio Cass., lx., 19, seqq. — In partem rerum.
" To share in the undertaking."

Domita, gentes. Only the Boduni are mentioned by Dio ; but his
account is imperfect. As only Cynobellinus's sons, Caractacus and
Togodumnus, appeared in the field against Plautius and Vespasian ;
and, after the capture of Camalodunum, the war was considered as
completed ; it appears probable that most of the tribes south of the
Thames and Severn were under the dominion of Cynobellinus.—
Capti reges. Who these were we do not know. Bede says the
country was divided among twenty-five petty kings.

Monstratus fatis. " Was pointed out by the fates." As this ex-
pedition laid the foundation of Vespasian's subsequent elevation to
the throne, by the fame which he thereby acquired of a successful
commander, it may well be said that tte fates now began to gi\e
indications of his future career. Observe that fatis is here in the
ablative without a, instances of which construction are not unfre-
quently found. Compare Liv. (v., 15): " Interpres fatis oblatus ;"
and Hor. (Od., I, 6, 1) : " Cura fatis data." We cannot regard fatis
in the present passage as the dative, since a person could hardly be

162 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIV.

said to be commended to the favor of the fates, who, as Seneca
(Qucest. Nat., 35) says, " Aliter jus suum peragunt, nee ulla commo*
centur prece, non mis ericordia fleet untur, non gratia. Servant cur sum
irrevocabilem, et ex destinato fluunt."

CHAPTER XIV.

Aulus Plautius. He was the consular legatus during the years
A.U.C. 796-800. (Consult Ann., xiii., 32; Bio Cass., lx., 19.)—
Propositus. " Was placed over the island." The full form of ex-
pression would be propositus est insulce. — Subinde Ostorius Scapula.
During the years A.U.C. 800-803. For an account of his contests
with the Silures under Caractacus, consult Ann., xii., 31, seqq.
Though he penetrated to the Irish Sea, and Caractacus was de-
livered up by Cartismandua, the queen of the Brigantes, he did not
subdue the Silures. Oyster Hill, near Hereford, the site of a Roman
camp, received its name from him.

Proxima pars insula. " The part of the island nearest us," i. e.,
nearest Italy and Rome. How much of the southern part of the
island is included in this can not be determined. — Addita insuper ve-
tcranorum colonia. This was at Camalodunum {Colchester), the res-
idence of Cynobellinus. Camalodunum means " the city of Mars,"
Camalus among the Britons answering to Mars. It was called Co-
lonia victrix, and was chosen for the station of the fourteenth legion
(Legio gemina Martia victrix). Compare Ann., xii., 32 ; and, as re-
gards the modern name of Camalodunum, which some erroneously
make to be not Colchester, but Maiden, consult Quarterly Journal of
Science for 1822, No. 23. — Qucedam civitates Cogiduno, &c. " Cer-
tain districts were presented to King Cogidunus." Cogidunus is
not mentioned elsewhere. He was, perhaps, a vassal of the sons
of Cynobellinus.

Vetere ac jam pridem recepta, &c. " According to the old and
long-since established custom of the Roman people, to have even
kings as the instruments of slavery." Compare Livy (xliv., 24) :
" Pop. Rom. regum viribus reges oppugnare. Attalo adjutore patrem
suum oppressum. Eumene adjuvante Antiochum superatum."

Mox Bidius Gallus, &c. Consult Ann., xii., 40, and xiv., 29.
The British insurrection under Boadicea happened in A.U.C. 814,
and Suetonius's arrival in 812. Veranius was legatus for somewhat
less than a year, in 811. Accordingly, Didius held the command
during the years 804-810. — In ulterior a. Apparently in the territory
of the Silures. — Fama aucti officii. " The credit of having extended

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIV., XV. 163

the bounds of his administration," i. e., of having enlarged his prov-
ince. The term officium, as Walch remarks, is used in the same
sense by Caesar (B. G., iii., 5) : " Toti tamen officio maritimo Bibulus
propositus." Compare Dig. de Off. Proc, 4 : " Si quid uxores eorum,
qui ad officio, proficiscuntur, deliquerunt." — Veranius. This com-
mander made some incursions into the territory of the Silures, and
would no doubt have pushed his conquests further, had he not been
cut off by a premature death. Consult Ann., ii.. 56, 74 ; iii., 10, 13,
17, 19 ; xii., 5.

Suetonius hinc Paulinus, &c. " From this time Suetonius Pauli-
nus enjoyed prosperous fortune for two years, in the subjection of
tribes and the establishment of garrisons." We must be careful
not to translate " after the rebellious tribes had been subdued," as
some do. The past participle has a similar force in Ann., xvi., 21 :
" Nero virtutem ipsam exscindere concupivit, interfecto Thrasea Pceto,"
equivalent to interficiendo Tlvrasea Pceto, " Nero wished to destroy
virtue itself by killing Paetus." Compare Ann., iv., 34 : " Cremu-
tius Cordus postulatur novo ac turn primum audito crimine, quod editis
annalibus, laudatoque M. Bruto Caium, Cassium Romanorum ultimum
dixisset."

Monam insulam aggressus. The Mona of Tacitus is now the Isle
of Anglesea, whereas the Mona of Caesar is the Isle of Man. A
trace of the name Mona still remains in that of the Menai strait.
The Mona of Tacitus was the chief seat of the Druidical religion in
Britain, and was, on this account, attacked by Paulinus, who wish-
ed to put an end, by these means, to the influence exercised by the
Druid priesthood over the minds of the Britons, in stirring them up
to opposition against the Romans. Paulinus took the island, and
destroyed the groves in which human sacrifices were accustomed
to be offered. For a spirited sketch of the affair, consult Ann., xiv.,
30. — Vires. " Forces." Tacitus says that the island was power-
ful in its inhabitants (incolis validam). — Terga occasioni patefecit.
" Laid open to a surprise the settlements behind him." Tacitus
alludes to the revolt of the Britons under Boadicea, of which an
account is given in Ann., xiv., 31, as well as in the two following
chapters of the present work.

CHAPTER XV.
Interpretando. " By commenting upon them." — Ex facili. " Eas-
ily." This expression has been formed after the model of such
phrases as ex inopinato, ex insperato, ex abundanti (Quint., iv., 5, 15);

164 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XV.

ex affluenti (Hist., I, 57), &c. The same idiom occurs in Greek , as,
ex rov kficpaveoc (Herod., iii., 150) ; e£ aeXrrrcjv (Soph., Aj., 715), &c.
— Singulos sibi olim, &c. " That formerly they had only one king
for each nation." Observe the force of singulos, one for each na-
tion ; not merely one king, which would be unum regem. — Saviret.
Observe the employment of the subjunctive, as indicating the sen-
timents of the speaker, not those of the writer. — Mque discordiam
prcepositorum, &c. " That in an equal degree did the discord of
those placed over them, in an equal degree did their union prove de-
structive to those subjected to their sway." Observe here the em-
ployment of ceque .... ceque. So we have pariter .... pariter in Ovid
(Met., xii., 36): " Et pariter Phozbus, pariter maris ira recessit"
The use of atque in such phrases as aliud atque arose from the
omission of one aliud, which occurred in the fuller and original form
of the expression', aliud hoc atque aliud illud.

Alterius manus, &e. " That the officials of the one, the centuri-
ons of the other, mingled violence and insults," i. e., treated them
with mingled violence and insult. The first alterius refers to the
procurator, and by manus are meant his under- officers and attend-
ants; the second alterius refers to the legatus. We have given
here the reading suggested by Gronovius (Diatrib. in Stat., p. 264),
and which appears to great advantage by the side of the strange
emendations which different editors have proposed. The whole
question is fully discussed in Walch's note.

In prozlio fortiorem esse qui spoliet. " That in battle it is the
braver man who despoils." Observe, again, the employment of the
subjunctive in spoliet, as indicating^the sentiments of the speaker,
not of the writer. — Tamquam mori tantum, &c. "As if they were
ignorant only how to die for their native land." Compare the anal-
ogous Greek construction of tig with the absolute case of the par-
ticiple.

Quantum. " How mere a handful." One of the MSS. has quan-
tulum, the correction of some copyist who was ignorant that is, talis,
tantus, quantus, and the like, are employed to express diminution as
often as enlargement, (Walch, ad loc.) The infinitive is the more

usual construction in sentences of this kind ; as, " quantum

profici (Hist., iii., 70) ; •*' Quid dicturos" (lb., iii., 13). But the sub-
junctive may be used ; as, " cur petisset" (Hist., hi., 70). — Sic Ger-
manias excussisse jugum. By the overthrow of Varus, and tho
slaughter of his legions. The plural form Germanias has reference
to the subdivision of the country into Upper and Lower Germany.
(Compare notes on Germ., c. i.) — Et fluminet non oceano, defcndu

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. €HAP. XV., XVI. 165

"And yet were defended by a mere river, not, like themselves, by
the ocean." Observe that et has here the force of " and yet." So
nee for nee tamen, in chap. viii. Compare Livy (xxv., 25) : " Nom-
ina partium urbis, et instar urbium sunt ;" and, again (i., 37) : " Moti-
tes effuso cursu Sabini pctebant, et pauci tenucre."

Divus Julius. This expression seems rather strange in the mouth
of a barbarian ; but the Roman writers were not so scrupulously
exact in such matters as modern criticism requires. — Recessisset.
The subjunctive again, to express the sentiments and assertion of
the speaker merely. — Qui detinerent. " Since they detained." Ob-
serve that qui here takes the subjunctive, because the clause in
which it stands contains the reason of what precedes. (Zumpt,
$A64.)

Quod difficillimum fuerit. " What has ever been most difficult."
Compare chap. xii. : " In commune non consulunt." Observe, again,
the employment of the subjunctive to express the sentiments, &c.,
of the speaker. — Porro. "In fine." Analogous, in some respect,
to denique. (Walch, ad he.) — Audere. "To dare to put them into
execution."

CHAPTER XVI.

Boadicea. This name is variously spelt, Boudicea, Boodicea, or
Boadicea. The last form has most authority in its favor. Dio Cas-
sius gives BowdoviKa. She was the wife of Prasutagus, king of the
Iceni, a tribe inhabiting the eastern coast of Britain. The story of
her wrongs is related in Ann., xiv., 31. — Sumsere bellum. So Ann.,
ii., 45; and "prozlium sumsere" (Hist., ii., 42). Compare the
Greek, no/ie/iov rjpavro (Thucyd., iii., 39). — Expugnatis prcesidiis.
Camalodunum was taken and destroyed by fire. Londinium was
also taken, and Verulamium soon after experienced a similar fate.
In these places nearly seventy thousand Romans and Roman allies
were slain with cruel tortures. — Nee ullum in barbaris, &c. " Nor
did anger and the license of victory omit any kind of cruelty usual
among barbarians." It is errcreous to regard ira et victoria here as
a mere hendiadys. The expression is meant to be a far more forci-
ble one. Compare the remarks of Botticher, p. xlvi.

Quod nisi Paulinus, &c. " Had not Paulinus, therefore," &c—
Quam unius prazlii fortuna, &c. " The fortune of a single battle,
however, reduced it to its ancient subjection ; although many still
remained in arms, whom the consciousness of revolt and dread of
the legate more -nearly affected." Suetonius saw that a battle

166 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVI.

could no longer be deferred. His forces consisted of only about ten
thousand men, while those of the Britons under Boadicea are said
to have amounted to two hundred and thirty thousand. On the day
of the battle the queen rode in a chariot with her two daughters
before her, and commanded her army in person. She harangued
her soldiers, reminded them of the wrongs inflicted upon Britain by
the Romans, and roused their courage against the common enemy.
But the Britons were conquered by the greater military skill and
the favorable position of the Romans. About eighty thousand Brit-
ons are said to have fallen on that day, and the Romans to have
lost no more than 400. Boadicea would not survive this irrepara-
ble calamity, and put an end to her life by poison. This victory
finally established the Roman dominion in Britain. {Ann., xiv<^
31-37; Bio Cass., lxii., 1-12.)

Burius. " With too much severity." — Petromus Turpilianus.
Sent A.U.C. 815. He was put to death by Galba. (Hist., i., 6, 37.)
From this time forward, Britain, as far as Anglesea, may be consid-
ered as under the Roman dominion. — Belictis hostium novus, &c.
" New to the offences of the enemy, and on that account milder
to their repentance," i. e., unacquainted personally with the ex-
cesses of which the foe had been guilty, and therefore more disposed
to treat them mildly on their repenting. Compare "novus dolori"
(Sil. Ital., vi., 254) : "fir-mus adversis" {Agric., 35). — Compositis
prioribus. " After the former disturbances had been allayed." —
Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit. When is uncertain : probably
in A.D. 64. Trebellius's flight took place in A.D. 69. {Hist, i.,
60 ; ii., 55.)

Nullis experiments. For nulla experientia. — Comitate quadam cu~
randi. "By«. certain courtesy in governing." Curare is not un-
frequently used by Sallust and Tacitus in the sense of " governing,"
" administering," " commanding." Thus, " Is in ea parte curabat."
{Sail., Jug., 60) : " Qui proconsul Asiam curaverat" {Ann., iv., 36). —
Vitiis Uandientibus . " Through the seductive influence of our
vices," i. e., through the seductive charms of luxury. Literally,
" our vices coaxing them (into this state of feeling)." — Et internet*
tus cixilium armorum, &e. Namely, in order that the empire might
not be harassed by foreign wars at the same time that it was torn
by intestine convulsions.

Sed discordia labor atum. " Danger, however, was incurred by
mutiny." The noun labor is used in this same sense. Compare
Tibull, i., 1, 3 : " Quern labor assiduus vicino terreat hoste." Hovog
and Tvoveh are similarly employed in Greek. (Consult Gottleber., ad

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVI., XVII. 167

Thucyd., ii., 49,) — Lasciviret. " Began to grow insubordinate." —
Precario mox prcefuit. " Commanded after this by a precarious
authority." (Consult note on "precario jure parendi," Germ., 44.)
— Prafuit. Supply exercitui. — Ac velut pacti, exercitus licentiam, &c.
" And, as if they had stipulated, the army for unbridled freedom,
the general for safety, this sedition was unaccompanied by blood-
shed." We have adopted here the punctuation of Walther, which
appears to afford the best sense. Walch and others place a colon
after salutem, and make pacti stand for pacti sunt, u And they, as it
were, stipulated," &c. This, however, brings in the succeeding
clause too abruptly. According to our pointing, pacti is for pacti
essent.

, Vettius Bolanus. Consult chapter viii. This governor arrived
in Britain between April and May, A.D. 69. During his adminis-
tration the circumstances happened which are recounted by Tacitus,
in Hist., iii., 45. — Eadem inertia. Statius, then, must be charged
with flattery in addressing Crispinus, the son of Bolanus. (Silv.,
v., 2, 53, seqq., 142, seqq.) — Nullis delictis invisus. "Hated for no
crimes." Compare, for a similar usage, Ann., vi., 42 : " Trecenti
opibus aut sapientia delecti." — Caritatem paraverat loco auctoritatis.
" Had procured for himself affection in lieu of authority," i. e., had
made himself loved rather than feared.

CHAPTER XVII.
Et Britanniam reciperavit. " Recovered Britain also," i. e., re-
stored it to the benefits of a firm and wise administration of affairs
at Rome. Vespasian placed the Roman world once more upon a
firm basis, after it had been shaken to its centre by the civil con-
test between Otho and Vitellius. (Dronke, ad loc.) — Reciperavit.
The earlier form of recuperavit, and which we have given with the
best editors. (Consult Gronov. and J)rakenh., ad Liv., 7, 18.) — Magni
duces, egregii exercitus, &c. " Our generals (in that island) were
: men of great abilities, our armies were excellent, the confidence of
the foe was lessened." Supply fuere in the first and second clauses,
and fuit in the third.

Petilius Cerialis. Already mentioned in chapter viii. — Brigan-
tum. The Brigantes inhabited what are now the counties of York,
Westmoreland, Durham, and Lancaster. — Aut victoria amplexus, &c.
Observe that victoria amplecti is "to subdue," but hello amplecti "to
overrun." — Et cum Cerialis quidem, &c. " Although Cerialis, in-
deed, might have obscured the care and fame of another successor,

168 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVII., XVITI.

yet Julius Frontinus also sustained the burden," i. e., discharged
with ability the duties of his office. Observe that obruisset here
merely indicates possibility, and is equivalent to obruere potuisset.
The subjunctive has not unfrequently a pregnant sense, involving
posse, velle, opus esse. The reason why Tacitus expressed himself
on this occasion so cautiously may probably be owing to the fact
that Frontinus was still alive. In Hist., iv., 71 ; v., 21, he uses
greater freedom. — Alterius. The term alter, although it is com-
monly synonymous with erepoc, sometimes stands for erepog rig, and
is even equivalent to' akloc occasionally. Compare chapter v.:
" Consilio ductuque alterius"

Quantum licebat. " As far as was permitted," i. e., as far as was*
permitted by the times in which he lived, when to appear eminent
was dangerous ; and it was dangerous, especially for the governor
of so important a province, even in the time of Vespasian. Fronti-
nus lived till A.D. 106, and was an augur at the time of his death.
He was the author of a work upon the art of war (Stratagemaiica),
and of another upon the aqueducts of Rome, the superintendence
of which was intrusted to him during the reigns of Nerva and Tra-
jan.— Validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem. Since the victories
of Suetonius Paulinus, from about A.D. 62 to 75, we hear nothing
of the struggles with the Silures. But that the subjection of these
wild mountain tribes had not yet been accomplished, is shown not
only by Frontinus's expedition, but by Agricola's enterprise against
Mona.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Hunc Britannia statum, &c. " Found this condition of Britain,
these vicissitudes of warlike operations," i. e., found Britain in this
state, as resulting from the fluctuating fortune of the contests which
have just been mentioned. Observe that vices here marks a result,
not what was passing at the time. — Media jam astate. This was in
A.D. 78. — Cum et milites, velut, &c. " "When both our own soldiers,
as if all onward movements had been given over, were addressing
themselves to enjoyments free from care, and the enemy to the
seizure of the opportunity thus offered them." Observe the middle
sense of verterentur, and with regard to omissa expeditione compare
the explanation of Walch : " als ware die Ueberwdltigung der lnsel
aufgegeben."

Ordovicum civitas. The Ordo vices inhabited the counties of Flint,
Denbigh, Caernarvon, Merioneth, and Montgomery. — Alam infinibus

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XVIII. 169

suis agentem, &c. • " Had destroyed almost to a man the troop of
horse acting within their confines." The ala was the body of cav-
alry belonging to the legion, in number generally about three hun-
dred. Agentem marks that there was a fixed camp. The period
between the departure of Frontinus and the arrival of xAgricola,
when the island was without a governor, probably afforded the op-
portunity for this occurrence.

Eoque initio erecta provincia, &c. " And by this beginning the
inhabitants of the province being thrown into a state of anxious sus-
pense, inasmuch as a war was what they wished for, either approved
of the example, or waited to learn the feelings of the new governor,"
i e., or withheld their determination till they had ascertained his
feelings. The meaning is, that some did the one, and some the
other. Ut qui generally, and always in Livy, is joined with the
subjunctive mood ; but sometimes with the indicative. Observe,
moreover, the hnitation of the Greek idiom in ut quibus helium volen-
tibus eratj where the regular Latin form of expression would have
been ut qui helium volehant, and compare Kuhner, G. G., § 599, 3, ed,
J elf. So we have in Sallust (Jug., 84), " Neque plebi militia volenti
putabatur ;" and (c. 100), " Uti militibus excequatus cum imperatore
lahos volentibus esset ;" and, again, in Livy (xxi., 50), " Quibusdam
volentibus novas res fore."

Numeri. " The forces." The term numerus is here employed in
its military sense, a meaning which appears to have come in during
the reign of Augustus. It is well explained by Torrentius (ad Suet.,
Vesp., 6) : "Est militare vocabulum non solum pro catalogo seu bre-
viculo militum, quam etiam matriculam vocant, sed pro ordinibus ipsis
turmisque et cohortibus militum." Walch renders it here "the co-
horts," but this appears too limited, the reference being rather to va-
rious subdivisions and bodies of troops. Botticher, therefore, trans-
lates, more correctly, "die Truppenabtheilungen" — Prcesumta apud
militem, &c. " Inaction for that year was anticipated among the
soldiery." — Tarda et contraria helium inchoaturo. " Circumstances
wThich delay and thwart one who purposes to commence war."
This must be taken as a parenthesis independent of qaamquam.—
Custodiri suspecta. u That the suspected parts of the country should
be watched merely," i. e., those parts where the inhabitants were
suspected of an intention to throw off the Roman yoke.

Contraciisque legionum vexillis. " And having drawn together the
veterans of the legions." Observe that vexillis is here for vexillariis.
On comparing all the passages where the vexillarii and vexilla legio-
num are mentioned, it will be found that we are to understand by

170 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XVIII.

these terms those veterans who, since the time of Augustus, after
serving sixteen campaigns, were released from their military oath,
but were retained till their complete discharge under a flag (vexillum)
by themselves, free from all other military duties, except to render
assistance in the more severe battles, to guard the frontiers of the
empire, and keep in subjection provinces that had been newly con-
quered, and were, therefore, more disposed to revolt. There were
vexillcrii attached to each legion, and it wxmld appear {Ann., iii., 21)
that they amounted in number to five hundred. When there was
any necessity, they were detached from their legions, and some-
times, as in the present instance, were all united into one body.
Consult Walch's elaborate note on this subject.

In cequum. " Into the plain." — Erexit aciem. "Led his force m
battle array up toward the mountains." Compare Dronke, " Eri-
gcre aciem est in arduum versus montem ducere." So Livy (i., 27),
" Inde, ubi satis subisse ratus est, erigit totam aciem." — Instandum
jama. "That renown must be followed up." — Cessissent. For
processissent. So x^pelv, for npox^pelv, in Herodotus (v., 49). — Cu-
jus possessione revocatum. Observe the omission of the preposition
a, and compare Germ., 14: " Exigunt liberalitate principis."

Ut in dubiis consiliis. "As in the case of plans, the issue of
which is doubtful." The meaning appears to be, that Agricola had
had some intention of invading Mona previous to his campaign
against the Ordovices ; but, as the result of that campaign was
doubtful, he had not provided vessels ; and he had not had time to
do so after the conquest of the Ordovices, when he had fully de
termined to invade the island. Examples of the passive meaning
of dubius frequently occur. Thus, Suet., Aug., 17 : " M. Antonii so-
cietatem semper dubiam et incertam abrupit tandem" — Ratio et constan-
tia ducis transvexit. " The ability and resolution of the general
transported his forces across."

Lectissimos auxiliarium. Virdung supposes these auxiliaries to
have been Germans, especially Batavians, and refers, in support of
his opinion, to Hist., v., 14, where the Germans are spoken of as
"fluminibus suetos," and to Mela, iii., 3, &c. But others, with more
probability, think that they were Britons, since the Batavians could
not be acquainted with the shallows between Britain and Mona.
Eighteen years before, Suetonius Paulinus had sent his cavalry
across the straits in the same way. (Ann., xiv., 29.) — Quibus nota
vada, &c. " To whom the fords were known, and the practice of
swimming was the peculiar one of their country." Compare, as
regards the force of patrius here, the remarks of Boetticher, Lex.

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVIII., XIX. 171

Tac, s. v. Paternus et Patrius, p. 344. — Qui classem, qui naves ,
&c. " Who expected a (Roman) fleet, who expected ships, who
expected the (difficulties of the) sea," i. e., the difficulties which
would be opposed to the progress of the Romans by the intervening
straits. (Compare Bdtticher, Remarks, &c, p. xliL) — Nihil arduum
aut invictum. " Nothing arduous or insuperable." Observe the
employment of invictum, a perfect participle passive, in place of a
neuter adjective in He. This is one of the peculiarities of the style
of Tacitus. (Compare Bdtticher, Remarks, p. xl.)

Officiorum ambitum. " Efforts to procure the homage and flattery
of the inhabitants." Compare Ulpian: "Antequam fines provincice
decretce sibi proconsul ingressus sit, edictum debet de adventu suo mittere,
continens commendationem aliquam sui, si qua eifamiliaritas sit cum pro-
vincialibus, vel conjunctio, et maxime excusantis, ne publice, ne privatim
ei occurrant ; esse enim congruens, ut unusquisque eum in sua patria
exciperet." (Ulp. in Dig. de Off., Proc. et Leg., i., tit. 16, s. iv., § 3.)

Nee Agricola, usus prosperitate rerum, &c. "Neither did Agricola,
having used prosperity of affairs for purposes of mere vanity, call
the having curbed those already conquered an expedition or a vic-
tory. He did not even follow up his achievements with laureled let-
ters." According to the Roman custom, after any decisive battle
had been won, or a province subdued by a series of successful oper-
ations, the successful general forwarded to Rome a laurel- wreathed
dispatch containing an account of his exploits. The laurel (i. e.,
bay) was considered by the Romans the peculiar emblem of victory.
With laureatis supply Uteris. The full form is given by Livy (xlv.,
1) : " Liters a Postumio laureata sequuntur, victoriam Populi Romani
esse."

Mstimantibus . "Men considering." Ablative absolute, and an
imitation of a well-known Greek idiom. (Consult Wopkens, in Act.
Traj., ii., p. 118.)

CHAPTER XIX.

Animorum provincial prudens. " Being well aware of the tone of
feeling in the province." — Per aliena experimenta. " By the expe-
rience of others." More closely, " By the trials which others had
made." — Excidere. "To eradicate." — Domum suam. "His own
household." Domus is here used in a wider sense than in chapter
xlvi., and means his suite (military family) and attendants.

Nihil per libertos servosque, &c. "He transacted no public busi
ness through freedmen or slaves." Supply age- e} in the sense of

172 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIX.

agebat. This omission of the verb agere or facer e is riot unfrequent.
Compare Ann., i., 43 : " Melius et amantius Me, qui ferrum mihi obtu-
lit," soil, agebat; and iv., 38: "Melius Augustum qui speraverit,"
scil. egisse, &c. — Non milites adscire. " He promoted no recruits (to
the ranks of the legion)." Tacitus is speaking here not of levying
soldiers, but of the promotion of recruits to the honor of serving in
the legion through private favor (studiis privatis), or on the recom-
mendation of the centurions. The term milites in its full force be-
longed only to the legionary troops. The tirones thought much of
the honor of serving in the legion, and frequently importuned the
centurions for this promotion. The prudence of Agricola, according-
ly, provided against what occurred in after times, as we learn from
Vegetius : " Legionum nomen in exercitu permanet hodieque, sed per
negligentiam superiorum temporum robur infractum est, cum virtutis
prcemia occuparet ambitio, et per gratiam promoverentur milites, qui
promoveri consuerant per laborem" (Veget., iii., 3.)

Sed optimum quemque, &c. " But he thought each best man the
most faithful." Observe that optimus is here, in fact, equivalent to
fortissimus. Compare Sallust {Jug., 98) : " Optimus quisque cadere."
— Omnia scire, non omnia- exsequi. " He knew all things, he did not
punish all." Observe that exsequi, in the sense of ulcisci, is found
not only in writers of this age, but in Livy, iii., 25, and v., 11. This
meaning is deduced naturally enough from the literal signification
of "to follow out."

Commodare. "He applied." There is no need, as Walther cor-
rectly remarks, of regarding this, with Walch, as an instance of
zeugma. The meaning we have here given to the verb, and which
is closely allied to its literal one, will suit equally well both veniam
and severitatem. — Nee pozna semper, sed scepius, &c. " Nor was he
satisfied (only) with punishment always, but more frequently with
repentance." There is no need whatever of our supplying uti with
pozna, as Ernesti does. Cicero has supplicio contentus (in Verr.,
ii., 37), and we need not object, therefore, to pozna contentus in the
present instance.

Frumenti et tributorum auctionem, &c. " He mitigated the in-
x crease of the supply of corn and of the taxes by an equalizing of
burdens," i. e., he took care that all the inhabitants should be rated
fairly, according to their property ; that the poor might not have to
contribute more than the rich. In the term tributa Tacitus refers
to poll-taxes and taxes upon property. These were increased, and,
in some cases, doubled by Vespasian. (Suet., Vesp., 16.) Munus
is the portion which each had to contribute. — Circumcisis qua in

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIX. 173

qucBstum reperta, &c. " All those exactions having been abolished,
which, devised for private gain, were endured more grievously than
the taxes themselves," i. e., were more grievous to be endured, &c.
The meaning is, that Agricola put an end to all those devices foi
enriching themselves which had been practiced by the inferior of-
ficers of government, and were esteemed heavier burdens than the
taxes themselves.

Namque per ludibriiim assidere clausis horreis, &c. " For they
were compelled, in mockery, to sit by the closed granaries, and to
buy, besides, their own corn, and to sell it out again at a (small)
fixed .price." The meaning of this passage has been very generally
misunderstood. The explanation which we here give from Walch
will be found, on examination, to be decidedly the true one. From
the provinces, at least during the times of the republic, and from
Sicily, the Romans procured corn in three different ways ; namely,
by means of the frumentum decumanum, emtum, and cestimatum.
(Consult Cic. in Verr., Act. ii., lib. iii., 6-98.) The frumentum de-
cumanum was the tenth part of the produce of the ager publicus or
decumanus. It was exacted from the cultivators without payment
(Asconius, ad Cic, Verr., p. 29), and had to be carried down to the
sea {Cic. in Verr., iii., 14); but was generally purchased or con-
tracted for by the revenue-farmers, who were thence called decu-
mani, and who either sent it to Rome or sold it in the provinces.
The emtum frumentum was corn which was furnished in compli-
ance with the orders of the proconsul, to supply the wants of the
armies or of the capital, and for which a fixed price was paid, at
first from the public treasury, and afterward from that of the emper-
or. When the governor of the province was in league with the
decumani, the latter, by means of such edicts as those mentioned by
Cicero (in Verr., ii., 3, 13, 14), got all the corn in the country into
their power, as in the case of the Britons alluded to in the text,
who were compelled to purchase it back from the Romans at a high
price, both for their own consumption, and in order to furnish the
emtum frumentum, for which they were paid only the small fixed
price. By horreis, therefore, in the text, are meant the public or
Roman granaries, and not, as some most erroneously think, the
private ones of individuals. With regard to ultro, observe that it
has here the force of insuper, or amplius, and consult Botticher, Lex.
Tac, s. v.

Devortia itinerum, &c. "By-roads and distant parts of the coun-
try were appointed," i. e., as the quarters unto which the corn was
vO be carried. Here Tacitus refers to the frumentum cestimatum, as

174 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIX., XX.

it was called. The provincial magistrates had money given them
from the treasury, or from the emperor's purse, for the purpose of
buying corn for their own use, at a valuation fixed by the senate
(HS. iv., for a modius of wheat, HS. ii., for one of barley), which
wTas to be carried to whatever place they chose. They might either
exact the corn, or else a certain sum for that and for the expense
of its conveyance. Now corrupt and fraudulent magistrates always
appointed some place at a great distance, and away from the com-
mon route, unto which the corn was to be conveyed, and then com-
muted in money with the farmer, at a heavy loss to the latter and
great profit to themselves. (Ascon. in Verr., 29.) That frauds of
this kind were practiced down to the latest period, under the emper-
ors, is seen from a prohibition of Valerian's on the subject.

Deferrent. Supply frumenta. — Quod omnibus in promtu erat.
"What offered itself in abundance to all." — Faucis. The procura-
tor of the province and his officials.

CHAPTER XX.

Hac comprimendo. " By suppressing these abuses." — Egregiam
famam pact circumdedit. " He threw around peace an excellent
reputation," i. e., he established a very favorable idea of peace.
Compare the Greek idiom : TtzpiriQevai tlvl arijilav (Thuc, vi., 89) ;
and, again, aioxvvaic rrjv tcoTllv irepiSakelv (Isocr., Archid., 318). —
Qua. The antecedent is pax. They were despoiled and oppressed
in peace just as much as in war, and therefore the former was no
less dreaded than the latter. — Tolerantia. " Connivance." More
literally, "sufferance," i. e., suffering oppression to be exercised,
and secretly sharing in the spoils. We have given here tolerantia,
the emendation of Rhenanus, and far superior to intolerantia (" op-
pression"), the MS. reading. The former is adopted, also, by Bro-
tier, Ernesti, Oberlin, Walch, I. Bekker, &c.

Sed ubi cestas advenit, &c. During this summer Agricola seems
to have penetrated to the Solway Frith. That he did not proceed
further appears from the subsequent chapters. In chap, xxii., the
expression Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes aperuit would
hardly have been used if he had already penetrated as far as Edin-
burgh, as some imagine, in the second summer. It was the west-
ern portion of the Brigantes whom he now subdued, and, accord-
ingly, the conquests of Cerialis lay in the eastern part of their
country. They were only partially subdued by the latter (chapter
xvii.) ; and his successor, Frontinus, seems not to have completed

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XX. 175

his undertakings. — Militum in agmine, &c. Some editors read mul~
turn, others mulius. Both of these, however, are too abrupt here,
though multus is better, in point of Latinity, than mullum. — Disjec-
tos coercere. " He restrained the stragglers."

Loca castris ipse capcre. Many traces of these encampments still
remain ; two in particular, situated in Annandale, called Burnswork
and Middleby, are described by Gordon (Itin. Sept., p. 16, 18). —
JEstuaria. " The estuaries." The term cestuarium is used to de-
note the wide mouths of rivers, which are fordable or very shallow
at low water, but resemble arms of the sea at high tide. Such, on
the western coast, are those of the Dee, the Mersey, the Ribble,
Morecambe Bay, and Solway Frith. — Et nihil interim apud hostes, &c.
" And in the mean time suffered nothing (to be so far) quiet among
the enemy, as that he should not ravage (their country) by sudden
excursions," i. e., and in the mean time perpetually disquieted
and harassed the enemy by sudden excursions. The expression
subitis excursibus implies that there were towns or intrenchments
at hand, from which these sallies were made. — Irritamenta pads.
" Incentives to peace." (Compare Hist., ii., 62: ll Irritamenta gulce")

Ex cequo egerant. " Had acted on an equality (with the Romans)."
The expression ex cequo, being a somewhat general one, must, of
course, derive its particular shade of meaning from the context.
Here it implies that they had maintained their ground, and preserved
their liberty against the encroachments of the Roman power. — Et
prcesidiis castellisque circumdatce, &c. " And were surrounded with
garrisons and forts, (disposed) with so much judgment and attention,
that no part of Britain new (to us) before could fall away without
being (at the instant) attacked," i. e., could pass over to the foe un-^.
hindered. Observe that transient has here the force of transire po-
tuerit. The true meaning of this passage is extremely doubtful.
We have given the explanation of Walther, as the most satisfactory.

CHAPTER XXL

Sequens hiems. This was in A.D. 78-80. — Saluberrimis consilds.
" In most wholesome measures." — In bella faciles . " Prone to war."
i — Ut templa, fora, domus exstruerent. Julius's hoff, or house (the
house of Julius Agricola), and Arthur's oven, in Stirling, near the
mouth of the Carron, are said to have been built under the direc-
tion of Agricola. As we soon afterward find Eboracum an import-
ant city, the residence of the British governor, and sometimes of
the emperor himself, it is not unlikely that Agricola founded this

176 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXI., XXII.

city about this time in the country of the Brigantes, to promote the
civilization of this wild tribe. — Ita honoris cemulatio pro necessitate
erat. " In this way an honorable rivalry supplied the place of com-
pulsion," i. e., in this way he produced a spirit of honorable rivalry,
which had all the force of compulsion.

Jam vero principum, &c. The same line of policy was pursued
by Augustus (Suet., Aug., 48) and by other Roman emperors (Ann.,
ii., 2; xi., 16; xii., 10). Perhaps Agricola established schools, as
Caligula did in Gaul and Belgium. — Et ingenia Britannorum, &c.
" And he gave the preference to the natural talents of the Britons,
rather than to the laborious efforts exerted by the Gauls." Some,
less correctly, suppose that anteferre here means " to cause to ex-
cel." Gauls frequently found their way to Britain, and ingratiated
themselves with the princes of the country, to the exclusion of the
more talented but less cultivated natives.

Ut qui modo linguam Romanam, &c. "So that they who lately
refused to make use of the Roman language began to desire its el-
oquence," i. e., were now ambitious of becoming eloquent in it. In
their communications with the governor, and in judicial proceed-
ings, the Britons would be required to use the Latin tongue. — Habi-
tus nostri honor. " Our mode of dress began to be held in honor."
Supply erat. — Delinimenta vitiorum. " The blandishments of vicious
pleasures." — Humanitas. " Refinement." — Cum pars servitutis es-
set. " When, in reality, it constituted a part of their slavery."

CHAPTER XXII.

Tertius annus. The time meant is A.D. 80. — Novas gentes.
Those, namely, between the Solway Frith and the Frith of Tay,
in Annandale, Clydesdale, Tweeddale, Berwick, Lothian, Stirling,
Menteith, Perth, and Fife, through which ran a Roman road. —
Taum. Not the Tweed, which does not form an estuary, but the
Tay. Cerialis had before this penetrated to the Tweed. — Conflicta-
tum. " Having to struggle with. ' ' — Castellis. The remains of some
of these are still to be seen between Ardoch and Innerpeffery. The
principal one was at Ardoch, and so situated as to command the
entrance into two valleys, Strathallen and Strathern, thus illustra-
ting the remark made immediately after this by Tacitus, respecting
the skill displayed by Agricola in choosing advantageous situations
for his forts. Consult Pennant's Tour in Scotland, pt. ii., p. 101,
where a description and plan of the remains of this last-mentioned
fortress are given. — Aut pactione acfuga desertum. " Or was aban-

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXII., XXIII. 177

doned through capitulation and flight." Oberlin's edition has aut
fuga by a typographical error, which is repeated, however, by
Weikert, Naudet, and Weise.

Nam adversus moras obsidionis, &c. " For they were secured
against a lengthened siege by supplies of provisions for a whole
year." Literally, " against the delays of a siege." Some, less cor-
rectly, refer annuls copiis to supplies of fresh troops. — Intrepida.
" Passed without alarm." Supply erat.—Irritis. "Being baffled."
— Pensare. " To make up for." The simple verb for the compound
" compensare." — Juxta pellebantur. " Were alike pressed hard."

Per alios gesta avidus intercept. " Greedily intercept (the glory
of) things achieved by others," i. e., with a greedy desire of distinc-
tion. Observe that avidus here has, by a poetic usage, the force of
an adverb, and compare Zumpt, § 682. — Seu centurio sen prcefectus,
&c. " Whether it were a centurion or a commander of a legion, he
had (in Agricola) an impartial witness of what had been done," i. e.,
of his achievement. Supply esset after centurio.

Acerbior in conviciis. " Somewhat harsh in his reproaches," i. e.,
in reproof, when reproving any one. — Injucundus. " Austere." —
Secretum et silentium ejus. " His reserve and silence," i. e., his re-
served and silent manner. — Odisse. "To cherish secret hatred "

CHAPTER XXIII.

Quarta astas. A.D. 81. — Obtinendis qua per cur rer at. "In se-
curing the country which he had overrun." Supply loca. Observe
that obtineo is used here in its common signification of " to hold
against another," " to secure the possession of," &c. Compare the
remark of Gronovius : " Obtinere est perseverare in tenendo, quod
Galli dicunt maintenir." — Pateretur. " Had allowed." — Inventus in
ipsa Britannia terminus. "A limit (to our conquests) would have
been found in Britain itself," i. e., within that part of the island de-
scribed immediately after as lying to the south of the Friths of Clyde
and Forth. Here ancient Britannia ended and Caledonia began.
It was in this same quarter that the rampart of Antoninus was sub-
sequently erected by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate.

Clota et Bodotria, &c. " The estuaries of Clota and Bodotria,
carried back deep into the land by the tides of opposite seas." The
reference is, as already remarked, to the Frith of Clyde and the Frith
of Forth. — Revectce. Observe that re has not unfrequently the force
here assigned it in composition; as in repostus, "placed far back."
Compare, also, Horace's reducta vallis (Epod.j ii., 11.)

H 2

f78 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXIII., XXIV.

Atque omnis propior sinus tenebatur. "And the whole bend of
the coast, in the more immediate neighborhood (of the isthmus)
was (likewise) occupied (with forts)." As regards the force of si-
nus here, consult notes on Germ., i. The chain of forts across the
isthmus was sufficient to prevent any irruption of the enemy by
land ; while, to check their attempts by sea, in which way the Picts
made their incursions in later times, Agricola had fortresses built
cast and, west in the adjacent region, which were united with the main
chain. It is this adjacent region, to the east and west of the isth-
mus, that Tacitus means to indicate by the expression "propior si-
nus" The work now called Graham's Dike was erected by Lollius
under the Antonines, but coincided with Agricola's line, which ran
from Old Kirk-Patrick on the Frith of Clyde, to Ah cr corn on the
Frith of Forth.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Quinto anno. A.D. 82. — Nave prima transgressus. "Having
crossed over in the first ship," i. e., having crossed the estuary of
the Clota in the first Roman fleet that had ventured narrowly to
examine this part of the coast. We have here given what appears
to be the true explanation of this much-contested clause, and most
in unison with the expression ignotas ad id tempus gentes, immedi-
ately following. Agricola might have marched his forces through
the isthmus without having recourse to ships, but probably the ap-
pearance of a fleet would be more calculated to strike terror into <
the nations along the coast.

Eamque partem Britannia, &c. The reference is to Carrick,
Galloway, Wight, and perhaps, also, to Argyle, Annan, and Bute. —
Copiis. "With troops." — In spem magis, quam ob formidinem.
"With the hope rather (of future conquests) than from any appre-
hension (of attack)," i. e., more because he hoped at some future
time to achieve the conquest of Ireland, than because he dreaded
any interruption from that quarter. — Medio inter Britanniam, &c.
(Compare chapter x.) — Opportuna. " Lying commodiously." — Va-
lentissimam imperii partem, &c. "Might unite the most powerful
portion of our empire by great mutual advantages," i. e., might form
a very beneficial connection between the most powerful parts of
our empire, namely, Britain, Gaul, and Spain, by means of commer-
cial transactions, and an interchange of their respective products.
—Miscuerit. In Greek we should have had av with the optative.

Nostri maris. The Mediterranean. — Ingcnia cultusquc. "The

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXIV., XXV. 179

intellectual character, and the usages." — Aditus portusque. "The
approaches to its coasts and its harbors." A great deal of useless
trouble has been taken by commentators with the sentence of which
these words form part. The reading which we have given is the
simplest and best. — Unum ex regulis. " One of the petty kings." —
Scepe ex eo audivi. Some take eo to mean this petty king, and ac-
cordingly conclude that Tacitus was at this time in Britain. But
there can be little doubt that it refers to Agricola.

CHAPTER XXV.

JEstate, qua sextum, &c. A.D. 83. — Officii. " Of his govern-
ment."— Amplexus civitates trans Bodotriarn sitas. " Having em-
braced (in his plans) the states situated beyond the Bodotria." The
reference is to the eastern parts of Scotland, north of the Frith of
Forth, where are now the counties of Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus,
&c. With regard to amplexus, as here employed, observe that the
fuller and more Augustan form of expression would have been
" Civitates ad subigendum animo et cogitatione complexus." — Infesta.
" Infested by." Observe that infesta has here a passive sense, and
compare Cic, de Prov. Cons., 2: "Via barbarorum excursionibus in-
festa." A much inferior reading is infesta hostilis exercitus, &c,
where infesta must have an active force.

Portus classe exploravit. Agricola's plan was, apparently, that the
fleet should support the army, which probably kept near the coast ;
and, if the latter met with too powerful an opposition at any of the
passes, should land troops in the rear of the enemy. — In partem vi-
riuni. " As a part of his forces." Virium is here equivalent to
copiarum. — Egregia specie. "With imposing display." — Impellerc-
tur. " Was urged on." The simple verb pellere is, properly, " to
put in motion ;" hence the force of impeller e here. Comparing
" Sive casus res humanas sine ordine impelliV (Sen., Ep., 16), and
" Placidum cEquor mille navium remis strepere aut velis impelli" (Ann.,
ii., 23), no difficulty need be raised at the expression impeller t bel-
lum.

Mixti copiis et latitia. " Mingled together in forces and in joy,"
i. e., mingled together in joyous groups. Compare the German
version of Strombeck, " in freudigen Schaaren gemischt ;" and also
that of Botticher, "frdhlich in buntem Gemisch." Some comment-
ators refer copiis here to the camp-stores of provisions. If this
idea be adopted, the meaning will be, " mingled together at abund-
ant and joyous messes ;" this mode of interpreting, however, is far

180 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXV., XXVI.

less natural, and less in accordance with the context. — Attollerent.
In the sense of extollerent. (Consult Ernesti, ad Ann., xv., 30). —
Adversa. "The hardships." — Victus oceanus. We have adopted
here the emendation of Lipsius. The common reading is auctus
oceanus, "the ocean swelled by tempests." But victus oceanus is
far more spirited, and is more in unison with militari jactantia im-
mediately following. Compare, also, " Domitus oceanus" (Suet.,
Claud., 17), and " Spolia oceani" (Suet., Cat., 46).

Ad manus et arma. " To action and to arms." — Paratu magno,
majore fama, &c. " With great preparation, with the still greater
fame (as is usual with reports concerning what is unknown) that
they had commenced hostilities," i. e., with great preparations, but
augmented by the report (as is usual where the truth is unknown)
of having commenced hostilities. The infinitive oppugnasse de-
pends on fama, as Walch correctly remarks ; and, according to this
same commentator, the meaning of the passage is the same as if
Tacitus had WTitten Magisque id fama celebrante " en oppugnaruni
Britanni ultro Romana castella." — Castella. Some forts in Fife,
Perth, and Strathern, the remains of which still exist ; manifestly,
from what follows, not the line of fortifications between the Friths
of Clyde and Forth.

Et excedendum potius quam pellerentur. The alteration of potius
to prius (as proposed by Gronovius) is unnecessary. Compare
Plaut. Aul., i., 1, 11 : " Utinam me divi adaxint ad suspendium, Po-
tius quidem, quam hoc pacto apud te serviam ;" and Liv., xxxiv., 25,
" Hortatusque conjuratos, qui aderant, ut potius quam extorti moreren-
tur arma secum caperent." — Specie prudentium. "With the air of
prudent advisers," i. e., under the mask of prudence. — Hostes pluri-
bus agminibus irrupturos. " That the enemy intended to bear down
upon him in several bodies."

CHAPTER XXVI.
Universi nonam legionem, &c. Brotier, following Gordon (It.
Sept., p. 32), places the scene of this occurrence in Fife, where the
remains of a Roman camp are found at Lochore. We must not
suppose, however, that all the remains of Roman intrenchments in
this part are to be referred to the time of Agricola ; many were
built under the Antonines and Severus. After a careful examina-
tion of the whole subject, Walch comes to the conclusion that the
ninth legion, which the enemy, altering their plan, fell upon with
their whole force, must have been posted further northward than

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXVI., XXVII. 181

Fife, in Angus, or perhaps Mar. If Agricola had been in the dis-
trict of Fife, which is hardly eight miles broad, he would probably
have immediately sought the enemy at the intrenchments.

Assultare. "To charge." — Propinqua luce. "At daybreak."—
Ancipiti malo. The battle in front and rear. — Securi pro salute, de
gloria certabant. " At ease respecting their safety, they (now) con-
tended for glory." Ernesti and other modern editors have changed
the reading in the text, which is that of the old editions and the
Vatican MS., into Securi de salute pro gloria certabant. This, how-
ever, is unnecessary. Compare il Numquam apud vos verba feci, aut
pro vobis sollicitior, aut pro me securior." (Hist., iv , 58.) — Vitro quin
etiam irrupere. " They (now), moreover, of their own accord rushed
upon the foe." — Utroque exercitu. Tne two divisions of the Roman
forces, namely, the ninth legion in the camp, and the troops that
had come to their aid. — Debellatum foret. " The war would have
been ended."

CHAPTER XXVII.

Cujas constantia ac fama ferox exercitus. " The army elated by
the intrepidity and fame of this achievement." Observe that cujus
refers back to victoria in the previous chapter. We have given to
the words constantia ac fama their plain and natural signification
Walch makes them a hendiadys for constanti fama, " enduring (i.
e., wide-spread) fame," but without any necessity. Lipsius, on the
other hand, conjectured conscientia ac fama, a reading actually found
afterward in one of the MSS., and which Ernesti, Dronke, and oth-
ers have adopted. This, however, as Walther correctly remarks,
wants spirit. There is a great deal of truth in the observation ot
Dureau de Lamalle : " Constantia victoria est une magniflque ex-
pression, qu'il faut bien se garder d'affaiblir. Le style doit avoir
ici autant d'audace que la victoire en donnait au soldat." — Invium.
" Inaccessible." — Continuo cursu. " By one continued career."
Atque illi modo cauti, &c. Compare chap. xxv. : " Regrediendumque

ignavi admonebant." — Iniquissima hcec bellorum conditio est.

" Such is ever the very unfair condition of warlike operations."
Observe that est is here the present aorist, and hcec elegantly em-
ployed for talis. — At Britanni non virtute, sed occasione, &c. " The
Britons, however, thinking that it had not been brought about by
valor, but merely by a fortunate concurrence of circumstances, and
by the skill of the commander," i. e., that their defeat was not ow-
ing to the valor of the Roman troops, but to mere chance and the

182 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXVII., XXVIII,

skill of Agricola. After rati supply fuisse. Commentators gener-
ally think that there is something corrupt in this sentence, and pro-
pose various corrections, such as arte ducis se victos rati, or, non ut
virtute, sed arte ducis superati, &c. There is no need, however, of
any alteration. The sentence is merely an elliptical one, in full
accordance with the wonted conciseness of Tacitus, and the simple
mode of supplying the ellipsis, which we have adopted, will remove
every difficulty.

Quo minus armarent. " But armed." Literally, " so as not to
arm." — Atque ita irritatis discessum. "And thus the parties sepa-
rated with imbittered feelings on both sides."

CHAPTER XXVIII.

Cohors Usipiorum. Compare Germ., 32. The doubt which sug-
gests itself as to the means by which the Romans could levy sol-
diers at this time among the Germans, when it was not till the
reign of Trajan that the Roman power was re-established on the
right bank of the Rhine, is removed by the fact that many tribes in
this part were, even at this time, dependent allies of the Romans.
This cohort was most probably part of the forces stationed by Agric-
ola in Kintyre, Carrick, and Galloway. From Dio Cassius (lxvi ,
20), it appears that the course of this circumnavigation was from
west to east, that is, they set out from the western side of the isl-
and, and coasting along all that part of Scotland, abounding in in-
tricate and dangerous navigation, passed round by the north. — Mag-
num ac memorabile f acinus ausa est. " Performed a very daring and
memorable enterprise."

Exemplum et rector es habebantur. " Served as a pattern and (at
the same time) as controllers of their conduct." Compare De La-
malle : " qui, faits pour leur servir de modele, avaient sur eux une sorte
X autorite.^—Tres liburnicas. Consult notes on Germ., 9. — Ascen-
dcre. "To go on board." — Et uno remigrante. "And one of the
number having escaped." Literally, "having gone back." Ob-
serve that the present participles of intransitive verbs are frequent-
ly to be taken as if they were perfect participles. Thus, descendens
{Veil. Pat., ii., 25) ; descendenti (Liv., xxi., 32) ; revertentem (Agric,
9), &c. We have given remigrante here, with the old editions. The
reading remigante, which Lallemand, Oberlin, and some others adopt,
from one of the MSS., is, as Walch correctly remarks, neither Latin
nor sense. The Latin idiom requires gubernantc, since we say of a
pilot, navcm gubernare, not remigare ; and then, again, the words

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXVIII. 183

uno remigante stand in almost direct contradiction to amissis per in-
scitiam regendi navibus.

Nondum vulgato rumor e. " The report of the affair not having as
yet been noised abroad," i. e., the report of their mutiny and flight. —
Ut miraculum prcevehebantur. " They were carried along (the coast)
as a kind of prodigy." Observe that prcevehebantur is equivalent
here to prcetervehebantur, and compare prcevehitur (Ann., ii., 6). The
inhabitants of the islands and shores on the west of Britain, along
which the Usipii sailed, were astonished at the wonderful sight,
and regarded it in the light of a prodigy. — Hac atque ilia rapti.
"Driven about in this direction and in that." Compare the lan-
guage of Dio Cassius, in speaking of the same circumstance : "£2f
ttov to re KVfia ml 6 ave[ioc avrovc e<pepe (lxvi., 20).

Eo ad extremum inopice venere. " They came at last to that de-
gree of destitution." — Infirmissimos. Strict classical usage would
require the ablative after vescerentur. (Zumpt, § 466.) — Mox sorte
ductos. " And then upon those that were drawn by lot," i. e., and
after they had fed on the weakest, then on those of their number
that chanced to draw the fatal lot. — Atque ita circumvecti Britan-
niam. After they had reached the northern extremity of Scotland,
they passed through the Pentland Frith toward the east, sustain-
ing new encounters with the inhabitants of Caithness, Sutherland,
Murray, Buchan, &c. Dio mentions that they nearly lighted upon
the Roman camp : nal D.adov ek tov km fiarepa npbc ra CTpardneda
to, ravrrf ovra 7rpocGX°VT€C- (Dio., I. c.)

Amissis per inscitiam, &c. It is possible, though not necessary,
to suppose that these Usipii were forced by stress of weather into
the Baltic Sea. The name Suevi was borne by many tribes (Germ.,
38), and there is no reason why we may not suppose that it was
the appellation of some of those (Germ., 40), which we find in the
region afterward possessed by the Saxons and Angles. It is diffi-
cult to determine how, after being intercepted by the Suevi, the
Usipii fell into the hands of the Frisii. We must suppose that,
either when attempting to reach their native country by land, or
endeavoring to work their way round on the wrecks of their vessels,
they were intercepted by some Suevi, and these, in turn, captured
by some Frisian pirates. That piracy in these quarters was of very
ancient origin is proved by the example of Gannascus (Ann., xi.,
18). — In nostram ripam. The left bank of the Rhine. — Indicium
tanti casus illustravit. " The proof (thus afforded) of so extraordi-
nary an adventure made objects of notoriety."

184 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXIX.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Initio cBstatis. This is the commencement of a new summer,
A.D. 84. The expression eadem (Estate (chap, xxviii.) shows that
Tacitus had finished his regular account of Agricola's proceedings
during the previous year, and that the narrative of the adventures
of the Usipii is to be looked upon as a kind of supplement. Some
editors, however, supply septimce, which, when abbreviated into VII.,
might be absorbed by the letters VIT at the close of the last chap-
ter.— Neque ambitiose tulit. " He neither endured with an ostenta-
tious firmness," i. e., he did not affect a stoical indifference in order
to excite the admiration of others. — Rursus. " On the other hand."
Observe that rursus has here the force of contra, and consult Bdtti-
cher, Lex. Tac, s. v., p. 415. — Et in luctu, &c. Observe that et has
here the force of sed. (Consult Bdtticher, Lex. Tac, s. v., $ v., p. 178.)

Qua. "In order that it." — Magnum et incer turn terrorem. "An
extensive and dubious alarm," i. e., in many and various places. —
Longa pace exploratos. " Approved by a long allegiance." By pace
is meant a peaceful submission to the Roman sway. — Ad montem
Grampium pervenit. In the ancient Scottish tongue this ridge was
called Grantzbain, now the Grampian Hills. It runs from Dumbar-
ton to Aberdeenshire. In Strathern, about half a mile south of the
Kirk of Comerie, is a valley nearly a mile broad, and some miles
long, through which the Erne and Ruchel flow. Here are the re-
mains of two Roman camps, with a double wall and trench, one
large enough to contain the eight thousand men which Agricola led
to battle, the other smaller, and suited for the three thousand caval-
ry. Two miles southeast is a third camp, in which two legions might
be conveniently quartered. They were, perhaps, posted here by
Agricola, that he might keep up a communication with the fleet.
The place itself still bears the name of Galgachan Rossmoor, taken
from that of the Caledonian leader.

Cruda ac viridis senectus. " A hale and vigorous old age." Com-
pare Virgil (Mn., vi., 304): " Sed cruda deo viridisque senectus.1'
So in Greek, topdv yfjpac, and tofioyepuv. — Ac sua quisque decora ges~
tantes. "And bearing each their honorary decorations," i. e., the
trophies won from enemies ; not, as Ernesti thinks, the honorary re-
wards they had received for their valor. — Calgacus. The more cor-
rect form of the name, as restored by Ernesti and Brotier from MSS.
and early editions. The common text has Galgacus. Becker
thinks that Calgarus is the true form, and refers in support of his
opinion to Ossian !

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXX. 185

CHAPTER XXX.

Causas belli et necessitate™, nostram. " The causes of the war, and
our present necessity," i. e., the motives that necessarily impel us
to war. — Nam et universi servitutis expertes. " For we are both, all
of us, free (as yet) from slavery." Supply nos before universi, and
sumus after expertes, and compare Annibal peto pacem (Liv., xxx.,
29), and Achcei arma Romana sustinebimus (Id., xxxii., 21). — Proelium
atque arma. By no means synonymous merely, as some suppose.
Proelium marks here the beginning of the conflict, and arma the
maintaining of it gallantly by arms and prowess. — Spent ac subsiduim
in nostris manibus habebant. " Had their hope and last resource in
our prowess." In ordinary prose the sentence would have run as
follows : " Priorum pugnarum spes sita est in nostris manibus ,•" and
the general idea is this, " In all the battles which have yet been
fought against the Romans, our countrymen may be deemed to have
reposed their final hopes and resources in us." — Nobilissima totius
Britannia. The Caledonians looked upon themselves as an indig-
enous race, and therefore styled themselves the noblest. Com-
pare Ccesar (B. G., vi., 12) : " Interior pars ah Us colitur quos natos
in insula ipsa memoria pr -oditur '." — Eoque in ipsis penetralibus siti.
" And, therefore, situated in its very inmost recesses." As in the
^penetralia of a dwelling all that was most valued was preserved, so
here, in the very heart of Britain, in the very sanctuary, as it were,
of the land, dwell the noblest and bravest of her sons.

Nos, terrarum ac libertatis extremos, &c. " Ourselves, the farthest
people of the world and of freedom, our very remoteness, and the
bosom of fame (which has thus far cherished us), have up to this
day defended," i. e., we, dwelling at the extremity of the world,
and the last people who have preserved their freedom, have been
defended thus far by both the remoteness of our situation, and by
the circumstance of our being the cherished ones of fame. The
expression sinus fames has occasioned considerable difficulty here.
Lipsius understands it as meaning that the Caledonians were
scarcely known to fame ; that they were in sinu famce conditi ; and
Gronovius adopts the same interpretation. But we have preferred
the explanation of Walther, which seems to suit the context better.
This last-mentioned editor compares sinus Jama with the expres-
sions " gestare in sinu,'''' " habere in sinu,''' &c. ; and as these gener-
ally refer to something cherished and valued, so here the same idea
is, by a bold figure of speech, applied to the words of the text. — Nunc

186 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXX., XXXI.

terminus Britannia patet, &c. • " Now, (however), the extremity of
Britain lies open to the view (of our foes), and whatever is unknown
(merely) becomes an object of magnitude." The first part of this
sentence, terminus Britannia patet, gives the reason why their re-
moteness of situation will no longer defend them ; and the latter
part, omne ignotum pro magnifico est, shows in like manner why their
former fame will no longer serve as a protection ; for the Romans,
who, when at a distance, magnified their strength, from knowing
little concerning it, will, now that they are near, conceive a less
formidable idea respecting it.

Sed nulla jam ultra gens, &c. The connecting idea between this
and the previous sentence is purposely suppressed by the writer,
from motives of brevity, and must be supplied by the reader : " Some
one here may say, i Let us then ask the aid of other nations,' but there
is no nation beyond us," &c. — Et infestiores Romani. " And (on
the other side are) the Romans, still more hostile (even than these),"
i. e., than the waves and rocks. — Raptores. " The plunderers." —
Et mare. "The ocean, also."

Opes atque inopiam. "Wealth and indigence," i. e., wealthy and
indigent communities. Equivalent to opulentos atque inopes. — Impe-
rium. "Empire,"

CHAPTER XXXT.

Hi per delectus, alibi servituri, &c. Britons are traced in Illyri-
cum, Gaul, Spain, and elsewhere. (Cannegiet. de Brittenb., p. 57.)
So we find Sigambri in Thrace {Ann., iv., 47), and Ligurians in Nu-
midia (Sail., Jug., 100.) — Bona fortunasque in tributum egerunt, &c.
" They consume our goods and property in taxes, the produce of
the year in contributions of corn." We must not confound ege-
runt here (from egero) with egerunt (from ago), as some have very
strangely done. As regards the force of egerere here, compare
Quintil., Declam., 5, 17 : " Census in exsequias egerere," and consult
Walch, ad loc. — Annos. Employed here for proventus annorum. So
Lucan, hi., 452 : " Agricoloe raptum flevere juvencis annum." Com-
pare Germ., 14: "Nee arare terram et exspectare annum tarn facile
persuaseris," &c.

Silvis ac paludibus emuniendis. " In making roads through woods
and over marshes." Munire is used properly when a piece of work
is performed by a number of persons, to each of whom a portion is
allotted. The root is the same as in munus, " a task." Hence,
munire viam is not to fortify a road, but simply to make one. — Ver-

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXI. 187

bera inter ac contumelias. Observe hqre the anastrophe of the prep-
osition after the manner of the poets, an arrangement admitted also,
though less frequently, by other writers besides Tacitus, but chiefly
those, like him, of the silver age. So we have " insulam inter Ger-
manosque" (Hist., v., 19); " ripam ad Euphratis" (Ann., vi., 37);
" hostem propter" (Ann., iv., 48). — Britannia servitutem suam, &c.
Namely, by paying tribute, and supplying the Roman armies with
food. Observe that pascere is properly used with reference to cattle.

Et conservis. Observe that et has here the force of etiam. — In hoc
orbis terrarum vetere famulatu. " In this ancient household of the
world," i. e., amid this troop of nations subjected in succession from
of old. — Novi nos et viles. Equivalent to nos tanquam novi et viles. —
Quibus exercendis reservemur. " For bestowing our labors upon
which we may be reserved." We have given exercendis here a
general signification, which suits equally well all the three nouns
that precede. In strictness, however, there is a zeugma in the
term, since exercendis properly applies only to arva and metalla, " the
working of fields and mines," while in connection with portus it re-
fers to the collecting of customs and port-duties for the benefit of
others. Some editors think that exercere'portus is meant to denote
here the servile drudgery of rowing. This, however, is not correct,
since the allusion in portus, as in arva and metalla, is to sources of
gain eagerly sought after by Roman cupidity.

Brigantes femina duce, &c. Cambden substituted Trinobantes
for Brigantes here, from Dio Cassius (lxii., 1), and Ann., xiv., 31 ;
and in this he has been followed by several editors. But the alter-
ation is unnecessary. The insurrection of the Britons against Sue-
tonius Paulinus began with the Iceni, and their queen Boadicea.
With the Iceni were united the Trinobantes, et qui alii, nondum ser-
vitio fracti, resumere libertatem occultis conjurationibus pepigerant.
(Ann., xiv., 31.) By these we can not well understand the Silures,
in whose territory Suetonius was posted ; and, accordingly, we
must look to the northern tribes above the Iceni. The wide extent
of the Brigantes, the loose connection of some of the tribes with
their queen, Cartismandua, and their fondness for warlike adven-
ture, which is marked by their very name (Brigands), render it not
unlikely that some of the southern divisions of this race took part
in the insurrection of their neighbors. Why, moreover, should
Calgacus mention the remote and comparatively small tribe of the
Trinobantes, rather than the neighboring and powerful one of the
Brigantes 1 (Compare Ann., xii., 32.)

Et libertatem non in prcesentia laturi. There is some corruption

188 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXI., XXXII.

in. the text here, and endless conjectures have been hazarded re-
specting it ; but no one seems to have discovered the true reading*
The corrections may be divided into two classes. 1. Those which
make the words contain merely a repetition of the idea conveyed
by integri et indomiti ; as, libertatem non in prcesentia illaturi ; lib. non
in prcesenti ablaturi ; lib. non in prcesens vindicaturi. Most of the in-
terpreters keep the words libertatem laturi, and explain laturi in the
sense of carrying off as a prize. Compare " Plus flagitii et pericuh
laturos" (Ann., vi., 34), and olaofievoi 66%av (Thucyd. , ii., 12). The
general meaning given to the sentence is, " We, who have not now
for the first time to win our freedom." And this, no doubt, is the
best view to be taken of the subject. 2. Those which make a sort
of opposition between the two clauses. Among these are, Et lib.
nunc demum periclitaturi (Gronovius) ; Et lib. omnem in procinctu la-
turi— Et lib. in premium laturi (Ernesti) ; Et libertatem in prcecipi-
tem aleam laturi (Walch). Compare " Ne elatus felicitate summam
rerumin non necessariam aleam daret." (Liv., xxxvii., 36 ; xlii., 59.)
Non ostcndainus. The employment of non for nonne is not un-
frequent. Compare Cic. in Verr., ivv, 7 : " Quis vestrum igitur
nescit, quanti hcec cestimentur ? In auctione signum ceneum non mag-
num HS. CXX. millibus venire non vidimus V and Virg., Mn., ix.,
144 : " At, non viderunt mcenia Trojce, Neptuni fabricata manu, consi-
dere in ignes ?" — Seposuerit. " Has reserved (for her defence)."

CHAPTER XXXTI.

Lasciviam. " Dissoluteness." — Ex diversissimis nationibus. As,
for example, the Britanni, Batavi, Tungri, Galli, Itali, &c. (Com-
pare chapters xiii. and xxxvi.) — Nisi si. Consult note on "nisi si
patria sit" Germ., 2. — Pudet dictu. Instead of pudet dicere. Com-
pare " Puditum est factis" (Plaut., Bacch., iii., 1, 12), and " Quia dictu
fastidienda sunt" (Vol. Max., ix., 3, 2). — Licet dominationi alienee, &e.
" Although they afford their own blood unto a foreign d6minion, yet
for a longer period its foes than its subjects," i. e., although they
are now shedding their own blood in support of a foreign yoke.
Observe that commodare has here its proper signification, namely,
" in gratiam alicujus aliquid prcebere," and consult Botticher, Lex.
Tac, s. v. — Metus et terror est. " It is fear and terror (that retains
them), feeble bonds of attachment," i. e., that retains them in loyalty
and affection (fide et affectu tenet).

Aut nulla plerisque patria, aut alia est. " Most of them have either
no country, or else a different one from this," i. e., one far away.

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXII., XXXIII. 189

The meaning is as follows : the greater part are either the betrayers
of their country, as the Britanni ; or are righting in a foreign land,
as the Batavi, Tungri, Galli, &c. — Paucos numero, circum trepidos
ignorantia. Some editors take circum trepidos to be equivalent to
circum trepidantes, or trepide circum vagantes, while others strike out
circum. But that would be equivalent to saying, Qui non solum om~
nino trepidi sunt ignora?itia, verum etiam ignorant, quce in cozlo, &c,
appareant. Most probably some such word as locorum, viarum, or
regionum has been lost before circum. Circum must then be taken
as in Ann., xii., 55 : " Duri circum loci." The words may then be
translated, "A few in number, dismayed through their ignorance
of the surrounding country."

Nostras manus. " Our own bands," i. e., numbers ready to unite
with us. He alludes not merely to the Britons, but to the Gauls
also, and the Germans. — Tamquam nuper Usipii, &c. Compare
chapter xxviii. — Senum colonics. Only one colony is, in fact, meant.
(Consult note on utrucidati veterani, incensce colonics," chapter v.) —
Mgra et discordantia. " Disaffected and distracted." — Hie. " Here
(with us)." — In hoc campo est. " Depends upon this field," i. e.f de-
pends upon your exertions in this field. Compare De Lamalle, " il
depend de vous, sur ce champ de bataille."

CHAPTER XXXIII.

Excepere orationem, &c. " They received his harangue with ex-
cited feelings, and, after the barbarian manner, with songs, and
yells, and dissonant cries." The verb excipere is used in the same-
manner by Livy (xxiv., 31), " Exceptus clamor ah aliis" Compare
Ann., ii., 38 : " Hcec plures per silentium aut occultum murmur exce-
pere."— Jamque agmina, &c. Supply apparent. The ellipsis of this
verb is common in Tacitus. — Audentissimi cujusque procursu. " In
consequence of the hurrying to the front on the part of each most
daring one." This assigns the reason why the armorum fulgores
were seen, and there ought, therefore, as Walch remarks, to be a
comma after agmina. — Tnstruebatur acies. " The army (of the Cal-
edonians) wTas being drawn up in line." — Coercitum. " Capable of
being restrained." This has here the force of an adjective in His.
So, " Genus mobile, infidum, neque beneficio neque metu coercitum.
(Sail., Jug., 91) ; and, again, " Quamquam infinitum id existimatur,
nee temere sine aliqua reprehensione tractatum" instead of tractabile
(Plin., H. N., iii., Proem.)

Militem adhortatus. This perfect participle is in meaning equiv-

190 NOTES ON THE AGUICOLA. CHAP. XXXIII.

alent to a present participle. So Horat., Sat., ii., 3, 34, " Solatus
jussit sapientem pascere barbam ;" and Hist., ii., 96, " insectatus ;"
Ami., i., 40, " complexus," &c. (Compare the remarks of Botticher,
p. xxxix.) Grammarians call this usage the employing of the perfect
participle aoplciToc, or indefinitely. — Octavus annus est. It was, in
fact, only the seventh summer since he had arrived in Britain. But
he probably includes the year 77, in which he was appointed gov-
ernor, though he did not arrive in Britain till A.D. 78. It is pos-
sible, however, that octavus (viii.) may be a mistake for septimus
(vii.). — Virtute et auspiciis, &c. " Through the energy and auspices
of the Roman Empire, you have, by your fidelity and perseverance,
been conquering Britain." — Neque. "Neither (during all this pe-
riod)."

Veterum legatorum. Equivalent to priorum legatorum. — Terminos.
Governed by egressi. (Zumpt, § 387.) — Finem Britannia, non fama,
&c. " We are become acquainted with the extremity of Britain,
not by widely disseminated accounts, nor by mere uncertain rumor,
but by actual possession with our arms and encampments." Ob-
serve that fama and rumore are not mere synonyms here, as Wal-
ther and others suppose. The distinction is well laid down by D6-
derlein {Lat. Syn., v., p. 233). — Et vota virtusque in aperto. "And
your vows and valor have now free scope," i. e., you have now an
open field for fulfilling your vows and displaying your valor.

Pulchrum ac decorum in frontem. Lipsius took frontem here in
the same sense as speciem. Brotier, also, translated it by en appa-
rence. Some render it as if it were proficiscentibus in frontem, which
would be rather a harsh expression. Frons here is equivalent to
acies ; qua adversus hostem spectat {Veget., in., 14). Translate,
therefore, the whole sentence as follows : " For, as the having sur-
mounted so long a route, the having made our way through forests,
the having crossed arms of the sea, is glorious and full of honor to
an army marching against the foe ; so are these same things," &c.
Pulchrum in frontem, for pulchrum fronti. Observe that pulchrum, ju-
cundum, gratum mihi, is the common expression ; but Tacitus uses
" grata in mdgus" {Ann., ii., 59). So other writers say : " dissimilis
alicui ;" but Tacitus has, " haud dissimili in dominum" {Ann., ii., 39) ;
and " Magnifica in populum largitio" {lb., ii., 48). — Hodie. "This
day." Well explained by Walther : " Eo statu, quo hodie versamur ;
oppositum est fugae."

Jam pridem mihi decretum est. " I have long since come to the
conclusion," i. e., it has long been a principle of action with me. —
Neque exercitus, neque ducis terga tut a esse. Compare Xenophon,

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. — CHAP. XXXIV. 191

Cyrop., i., 3 : Mupov yap to Kparelv /3ov?,o{ievove ra rv$?.a rod otjfia-
toc, teal aoirXa, kcli axecpa, ravra kvavria rdrruv role rto'/.zuioic (pev*
yovrag.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

Constitisset. " Stood in array (against yon)." — Nunc. "As it is,
however," i. e., as matters, however, actually are. — Furto noctis.
" Under the stealthy covering of the night." — Clamore. "By a
mere shout." — Ii ceterorum Britannorum fugacissimi. " These, in
respect of the rest of the Britons, the greatest fugitives of all." Ob-
serve here the peculiar and apparently illogical construction of cete-
rorum with the superlative, and which we have endeavored to soft-
en down in translating. It is, in fact, an imitation of a Greek idiom.
Thus, we have in Thucydides (i., 1), ' AZi&oyuTaTov rcov rcpoyeyevn-
(ievcjv tto/Jucjv. (Consult Poppo, ad loc, and Herm., ad Vig., p. 718.)

Quomodo silvas saltusque penetrantibus, &c. "As, when hunters
penetrate into woods and thickets, each fiercest animal is laid low
by the strength, the timorous and weak ones are put to flight by the
very noise of the band, so," &c. The old reading was ruere, for
which one of the MSS. gives contra ruere, the word contra having
been written over the line by the copyist, evidently for the purpose,
as Walch remarks, of imparting some sense to ruere. This latter
reading is adopted by Brotier, the Bipont editor, Oberlin, Dronke,
Bekker, and others ; but the true lection, nevertheless, is robore,
which the very opposition to sono plainly indicates. Besides, the
infinitive ruere can not be used in this way after quomodo or sicut ;
while if we regard it, not as the infinitive, but the 3d pi. of the per-
fect (for ruerunt), we ought then to have the same tense, instead
of the present, in pelluntur. According to the reading which we
have adopted, both robore (i. e., agminis) and ipso sono are construct-
ed with pelluntur, but there is a zeugma in the passage, and with
robore we must, in fact, understand such a verb as cceditur. (Com-
pare Watch, ad loc.)

Reliquus est numerus, &c. " There remains only a number of
cowardly and timid men, whom you have found at last, not because
they opposed you, but because, being the last, they have been over-
taken and caught by you." The expression quos quod tandem in-
venistis non restiterunt is an imitation of the- Greek idiom, for qui,
quod invenistis eos, non restiterunt. So " Urbem quam statuo vestra
est" (Virg., Mn., i., 573), and " Eunuchum quern dedisti quas turba^
dedit" (Ter., Eun., iv., 3, 11). — In his vestigiis. "In this place

192 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CEIAP, XXXIV,, XXXV.

where they are standing." — In quibus pulchram, &c. u In order
that you might, in this same place, show forth unto the world a
glorious and imposing victory." Equivalent to ut in Us (i. e., ves-
tigiis) ederetis, &c.

Transigite cum expeditionibus. " Bring (now) your expeditions to
a close." Equivalent to finite expeditiones. Compare Germ., 19 :
" Cum spe votoque uxoris semel transigitur ,•" and Ann., xii., 19 : " Bel-
lorum egregios fines, quotiens ignoscendo transigatur." — Imponite quin-
quaginta annis magnum diem. " Crown the fifty years with one
glorious day." He is speaking in round numbers ; from the expe-
dition of A. Plautius it was only forty-two years. — Approbate reipub-
liccz. " Prove to your countrymen."

CHAPTER XXXV.

Et alloquente adhuc Agricola. " Both while Agricola was yet ad-
dressing them." — Mcdiam aciem firmarent. " Formed a strong cen-
tre." Observe that firmarent is equivalent here to firmando forma-
rent. Compare Liv., xxii., 46: " Dextrum cornu Numidis equitibus
datum, media acie peditibus firmata ;" and, again, xxiii., 29 : " Mediam
aciem Hispanis fir-mat." Under the expression mediam aciem Taci-
tus includes all the infantry between the two bodies of cavalry. —
Cornibus aff under entur. " Were poured upon the wings," i. e., were
spread out and formed the wings. — Pro vallo. "Before the in-

snchments," i. e., in the rear of the auxiliaries. — Ingens victories,
iecus, &c. " A glorious ornament of victory unto the leader waging
the fight without any effusion of Roman blood," ^. e., a disposition
of his forces which would render the victoiy signally glorious, if it
were obtained without the expense of Roman blood. The more
common prose form of expression would have been, " Ingens impe-
ratoris in victoria decus, si bellaret citra Romanum sanguinem." As
regards the force of citra here, consult note on Germ., 16.

Ut primum agmen cequo, &c. " That the first line stood upon the
plain, the others, as if linked together, K>se one above the other
along the ascent of the mountain." — Media campi. " The interven-
ing space (between the two armies)." The space between the van
of the Caledonians and the Roman line. — Covinarius. " The chari-
oteers." Singular for the plural, as in eques immediately after.
Covinarius signifies the driver of a covinus (Celtic Kowain), a kind
of car, the spokes of which were armed with long sickles, and which
wras used as a scythe-chariot chiefly by the ancient Belgians and
Britons. {Diet. Ant., s. v.) — Eques. The cavalry of the Britons is

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXV., XXXVI. 193

meant (for they had both charioteers and horse), not that of the Ro-
mans. (Compare note on "interim equitum turmce fugere," &c,
chap, xxxvi.)

Simul in frontem simul et latera. Gesner, without any necessity,
reads et in latera. The preposition is understood. Compare Ann.,
vi., 51 : " Quamquam mater in Liviam, et mox (in) Juliam familiam
adoptionibics transient." Similar examples of ellipsis in the case of
de, per, ad, and a may be seen in Wopkens, Act. Traj., ii., p. 67.
Nothing is more in accordance with the conciseness of Tacitus. —
Diductisordinibus. " Having extended his ranks." Compare Duker,
ad Liv., v., 28. Virdung refers in illustration to the Greek vnepyal-
ayyelv, " to extend the line of one's phalanx." — Porreetior. " More
drawn out," i. e., weaker. — Promtior in spem. Tacitus, also, uses
promtior alicui. Thus, Ann., iv., 60 : " Mater promtior Neroni erat."
Older writers commonly have promtus ad aliquid. — Pedes ante vexilla
constitit. " He took his station on foot before the ensigns."

CHAPTER XXXVI.

Constantia. "With steadiness." — Arte. "With dexterity." —
Ingentibus gladiis et br embus cetris. " With huge swords and short
targets." These targets {cetra) were small and round, and made
of the hide of a quadruped. The broad-sword and target long re-
mained, even in modern times, the peculiar arms of the Scottish
Highlanders. — Vitare, vel excutere. "Avoided or struck aside."
According to Vegetius (i., 4), the Roman recruit was instructed
plagam prudenter evitare, et obliquis ictibus venientia tela deflectere.
This is what Tacitus expresses here by the words evitare and ex-
cutere.

Tungrorum duas. Many monuments of these Tungrian cohorts
remain in Britain, on which we find the words COH. TUNGR. or
COH. I. TUNGROR. MIL.— Ad mucrones ac manus. "To the
sword-point and a hand-to-hand fight." The Britons struck with
the edge of their swords (casim) ; the Romans, on the contrary, and
the allies that were armed after the Roman fashion, used their
shorter weapons for both cutting and thrusting (ccesim et punctim).
On the present occasion the Batavians and Tungri are ordered to
rush in to close quarters and employ the thrust, which would place
their opponents completely at their mercy. (Compare Vegetius, i.,
12, and Brotier, ad loc.)

Quod et ipsis vetustate militia exercitatum, &c. "A movement
that was both familiar unto themselves, from long experience in

194 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXX VI.

warfare, and embarrassing to the foe," &e. The small shields of
the Britons did not cover their bodies, and their huge swords were
not easily wielded at close quarters. — Complexum armorum et in
arcto pugnam. (i The thrusts of the Roman weapons, and a close
fight." According to Ernesti, complexus armorum is pugna quce fit
cominus et conserendis manibus. Brotier understands it in the same
sense : Complexus est quod Gallice dicimus " la m£lee," cum cominus
hostis petitur ; if, however, this interpretation were correct, complexus
armorum would have the same meaning as the following words, in
arcto pugna, that is, pugna cominus. But as in arcto pugnam refers,
apparently, to manus preceding (ut rem ad mucrones ac manus adduce-
rent), so complexus may refer to mucrones ; and it will then merely
mean the blows or thrusts of the Roman weapons. — In arcto pug-
nam. So, " in arcto pugna" (Liv.t xxviii., 33). The old reading was
in aperto, which does not suit the meaning.

Miscere ictus, ferire umbonibus, &c. Observe the air of rapidity
and animation which the succession of infinitives imparts to the
narration. — Erigere aciem. Consult notes on chap, xviii., " erexit
aciem." — JEmulatione et impetu. " Through emulation of their ex-
ample, and their own native impetuosity." — Festinatione victories.
" In their eager pursuit of victory." Observe that festinatio here
follows the active meaning, which festino and propero nearly always
have in Tacitus. (Compare Ann., xiii., 17; Hist., iii., 25.)

Equitum turmce fugere. We have given these words as they are
found in all the early editions. Lipsius, imagining that the Roman
cavalry were here meant, suspected the passage of being corrupt,
and conjectured equitum turmce effudere et covinarii, &c, or, rather,
equitum turmce effusce et covinarii, &c. Ernesti prefers erupere to
fugere, thinking, with Lipsius, that the Romans are referred to ;
while Walch supposes that an entire sentence has been omitted,
which he attempts to supply. All this correction, however, is per-
fectly unnecessary. By equitum Tacitus means the cavalry of the
Britons, put to flight by the Romans, and the expression turmce,
which has misled so many commentators, may be applied to the
British as well as to the Roman horse. Thus Tacitus elsewiiere
{Ann., xiv., 34) writes, " Britannorum copice passim per catervas et
turmas exsultabant."

Covinarii peditum se prozlio miscuere. While the cavalry of the
Britons, on their defeat by the Roman horse, fled from the scene of
action, the charioteers, in like manner repulsed, retreated to their
own infantry. By peditum, therefore, the British foot soldiers are
meant, not, as some think, the Roman. — Et quamquam recentem tcr-

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXVI., XXXVII. 195

rorem intulerant, &c. " And, although they had at first struck ter-
ror, were now, however, entangled among the crowded bands of
the enemy, and the inequalities of the ground." Observe that by
hostium are here meant the Britons themselves, not, as Walther and
others suppose, the Romans. On retreating to their own infantry,
the charioteers, who had occasioned some consternation by their
first shock, now became of little, if any, service ; for the crowded
bands of their own countrymen, already thrown into confusion by
the charge of the Batavians and Tungri, as well as the inequalities
of the ground, since the Romans were now making their way up
the acclivity, prevented them from using their chariots freely. —
Hostium. Muretus and Gronovius conjecture nostrorum, and Er-
nesti cohortium, but without any necessity.

Minimeque equestris ea pugnce fades erat, &c. " And the appear-
ance thus presented was by no means that of an equestrian con-
flict, since, keeping their ground with difficulty for any length of
time, they were both forced along by the very bodies of their horses,
and oftentimes straggling chariots, and affrighted horses without
drivers, just as fear had impelled each, rushed against those who
crossed their path or met them in front." The true reading of this
passage is extremely uncertain. The one which we have given is
adopted by Brotier and others, and appears to give the best sense.
When the charioteers had reached their own infantry, and were
struggling with their vehicles in the midst of this disorderly throng,
the confused appearance thus presented was very different, accord-
ing to our author, from that which a battle with chariots or with
cavalry usually presents ; for, keeping their footing with difficulty
on the declivity, they were every moment either impelled down-
ward by the mere weight of the bodies of the horses, or dragged
about by the affrighted steeds in utter disorder, and encountering
friends and foes alike.

CHAPTER XXXVIL
Vacui spernebant. " Were regarding with contempt, while thus
disengaged." Observe that vacui gets its force here from pugncz
expertes, which precedes. — Ni id ipsum veritus, &c. " (And they
would have accomplished their object), had not Agricola, having
apprehended this very movement," &c. Compare note on " Agi-
tasse C. Casarem" &c, chap. xiii. — Ad subita belli retentas. " Held
in reserve for the sudden emergencies of battle." — Accurrerant.
Dronke writes accucurrerant. The reduplicated form, however, oc-

196 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXVII.

curs only once in Tacitus, in decucurrit (Ann., ii., 7). — Transvecta-
que prcecepto ducis, &c. " And the squadrons having then, by order
of the general, been moved across the field from the front of the
battle," &c., i. e., having been ordered to wheel from the front.

Turn vero patentibus locis, &c. Imitated from Sallust (Jug., 101) :
" Turn spectaculum horribile campis patentibus ; sequi,fugere ; occtdi,
capi" &e. Observe the animated effect produced in both passages
by the series of historical infinitives, and the absence of the con-
necting conjunction. — Eosdem, oblatis aliis, trucidare. " Slaughtered
these same, as others came in their way." By eosdem are meant
those who had been taken. — Prout cuique ingenium erat. " Accord-
ing as the disposition of each one prompted." Compare Sallust ( Jug.,

93): " Uti cujusque ingenium erat.11 — Jam hostium virtusque.

There is an antithesis between jam hostium .... offerrc, and est
.... virtusque. To the former is subjoined, as its consequent, pas-
sim .... humus ; and to the latter, postquam silvis .... circumveni-
ebant. Dahl and some other editors propose to alter the order of the
clauses, but, by so doing, they disturb the natural order of the ideas.

Est aliquando etiam victis, &c. " Rage and valor were at times
present even to the vanquished." Compare Virg., JEn., ii., 367 :
" Quondam etiam victis redit in prcecordia virtus." Observe, more-
over, that est in this position is emphatic. — Quodni frequens ubique
Agricola, &c. " And had not Agricola, being every where present,
ordered some strong and lightly-equipped cohorts to encompass the
ground after the manner of a hunting-circle, and, wherever there
were thickets, a part of his cavalry to dismount and make their way
through these, and, at the same time, another part on horseback to
scour the more open woods, some disaster would have been en-
countered through excess of confidence." Observe the zeugma in
persultare, by which the verb acquires three different significations
in three successive clauses. — Indaginis modo. The term indago re-
fers to that mode of hunting in which the hunters formed a com-
plete circle round a large space of ground ; and, gradually contract-
ing it, drove all the animals together into the centre, where they
fell an easy prey to their darts. (Compare Liv., vii., 37 ; Flor., iv.,
12, 48.) — Sicubi arctiora erant. Supply loca.

Compositos firmis ordinibus. " Arranged in complete order."—
Agminibus. "In bands." — Vitabundi invicem. " Mutually avoiding
each other." — Satietas. " Satiety of slaughter." Supply ccedendi.
— Sexaginta. Some editions have quadraginta. The change is very
slight, XL for LX. — Ferocia equi. " The impetuosity of his steed."
(Compare chap, ii,, "plus tamcn ferocia.") j

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. — CHAP. XXXVIII. 197

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

Gaudio pradaque lata. " Rendered gladsome by the joy of suc-
cess and by plunder." — Per iram. " In the rage of despair." — Mis-
cere invicem consilia aliqua, &c. "Arranged some plans together,
then deliberated by themselves," i. e., sometimes they conferred to-
gether ; and again, at other times, deliberated by themselves. With
separare supply alia, i. e., consilia. — Frangi aspectu pignorum suorum.
" Were broken down in spirit at the sight of their pledges of affec-
tion," i. e.y their wives and little ones. — Savisse in. " Laid violent
hands upon."

Secreti colles. " Deserted hills," i. e., hills before crowded with
human beings, now desolate and solitary. Ernesti's emendation of
deserti colles is altogether unnecessary, and arose from his misunder-
standing the force of secreti, and giving it the meaning of remotiores.
— Ubi incerta fuga vestigia, &c. "When it was ascertained that
the tracks of flight were all uncertain," &c. — Et, exacta jam estate,
spargi helium nequibat. " And (when), the summer being now ended,
the war could not well be spread throughout the country." — Hores-
torum. Mannert (ii., p. 65) places the Horesti near the Frith of Tay,
and condemns the opinion of those who make them to have been
the inhabitants of what is now Angus Shire. This would have been
too near the foe, who, though defeated, might still have annoyed Ag-
ricola's forces.

Circumvehi Britanniam. This was more for the sake of conquest
than of discovery. Hence, the expression employed immediately
after, data, ad id vires, "A sufficient force was furnished him for
that purpose." — Ipsa transitus mora. " By the very slowness of his
march through them." — Secunda tempestate ac fama. " With favor-
ing weather and fame," i. e., both favored by prosperous gales, and
bearing along with them the fame of the Roman arms. — Trutulensem
portum. Where this was is not known. Brotier identifies it with
the portus Rutupinus, or Rutupensis, the modern Sandwich ; others

with Portsmouth or Plymouth. But the words unde redierat

must mean Quo redierat, inde lecto proximo omni Britannia latere,
" Unto which it had returned, after having set out from the same
and coasted all the nearest shore of Britain ;" and as proximo latere
omni evidently means merely the eastern coast and part of the north
and west coast, Mannert's opinion is probably the true one, that the
harbor in question was near the Frith of Tay, and that the fleet only
sailed along enough of the coast to prove that Britain was an island.
(Mannert, ii., p. 67.)

198 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XXXIX.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

Nulla verborum jactantia auctum. "Unadoraed by any pomp of
words." We have given auctum, the very happy emendation of
Lipsius. The common text has actum, but we may be allowed to
doubt the Latinity of such an expression as rerum cursum epistolis
agere ( Walther, ad loc). — Inerat conscientia. " He was conscious."
Inerat, used absolutely in this way, is found elsewhere. Thus,
" Prcecipua pedum pernicitas inerat" (Liv., ix., 16.) Compare
Sophocles, (Ed. T., 578 : "ApvnaLc ovk eveortv cjv avioTopelg.

Falsum e Germania triumphum. This refers to his first fictitious
triumph over the Catti, in A.D. 84. The occasion was furnished,
apparently, by the Cheruscan king, Charomer, who, by means of
Roman influence and Roman money, having become too powerful
for his hostile neighbors, was expelled by the Catti. Dio Cassius
(lxvii., 4) says that he returned without even having seen an enemy ;
still, however, the affair must have been attended wTith some suc-
cess, since we learn from Frontinus (Strategy i., 3) that he con-
structed the frontier wall between the free Germans and those who
were subject to Rome, so that he must, at any rate, have succeeded
in confining the barbarians within their own territory. — Emtis per
commercia, &c. He purchased a number of slaves, and attired them
like Germans, having also caused their hair to be dyed in imitation
of the ruddy locks of that nation, and then paraded these in triumph
through the streets of Rome as so many real captives. Caligula
had done the same thing before him. {Suet., Cal.t 47.)
! Id sibi maxime formidolosum. " He thought that this was most to
be apprehended by himself." Putabat or existimabat must be sup-
plied from inerat conscientia. Observe, moreover, that formidolosus
is here passive. Thucydides (i., 36) uses adeia^epov in the same
way. — Frustra studia fori, &c. Domitian thought that it was of no
use for him to have put an end to the study of eloquence and polite
literature, and to have banished those who excelled in such pur-
suits (compare chap, ii.), if some one should obtain popularity by
his success in war. — Et cetera utcunque facilius, &c. " That all
other accomplishments, too, whether more or less easily, are capable
of being concealed from view (by their possessor), that the talents
of an able commander, (however), form an attribute of empire. "
More literally, " are imperial," i. e., mark their possessor as a fit
individual to attain unto empire. Ernesti incorrectly construes
utcunque with dissimulari, and hence regards facilius as savoring of

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXIX., XL. 199

a gloss. The true construction, however, is utcunque facilius, which
Walch, whom we have followed, renders, " wie misslich es auch sei,
sei es leichter" In earlier Latinity the clause would have run as
follows : et cetera, utcunque sit, facilius dissimulari. '

Quodque savce cogitationis indicium erat, &c. " And, what was a
sure indication of some malignant intent, having brooded over them
for a long time in his wonted privacy." More literally, "having
sated himself with his wonted privacy." The allusion is to that love
of solitude which became the most confirmed of all the habits of Do-
mitian, and in which he indulged either for the purpose of plotting
mischief against others, or gratifying his own vicious propensities.
(Compare Suet., Bom., 3; Aur., Vict. Cces., 11 ; Plin., Paneg., 48 ;
Scaliger, ad Euseb., p. 202.) — Impetus famce. " The first impulse
of public opinion." — Britanniam obtinebat. " Held the command of
Britain."

CHAPTER XL.

Triumphalia ornamenta. Since the year 735, after Agrippa's vic-
tory over the Cantabri, the honor of the triumph itself belonged to
the emperor and to the imperial princes. Other generals were
forced to be contented with the mere insignia of the triumph,
the bay chaplet, the toga prcetexta, the trabea triumphalis, triumphal
statue (illustris), curule chair, ivory sceptre, &c. In the expression
quidquid pro triumpho datur are included the public sacrifices and
thanksgivings. (Compare Bio Cass., liv., 11, 24.) — Multo verborum
honore cumulata. " Loaded with much complimentary language," i.
e., together with a profusion of complimentary expressions. — Ad-
dique insuper opinionem. " And he causes, also, the expectation to
be entertained." — Majoribus. " For persons of more than ordinary
distinction." Observe that majoribus is here equivalent to illustrio-
ribus. So minores, in Ann., xvi., 8 ; Hist., iv., 85. The province
of Syria embraced a very large portion of the East, and formed one
of the most important and opulent of foreign commands. (Compare
Herodian, ii., 7, and Bergier, in Grcev. Thes., vol. x., p. 218, seqq., § 3.)

Ex secretioribus ministeriis. "Of the number of those employed
in confidential services." (Compare Botticher: " aus der vertrauteren
Biener Zahl") — Codicillos. "Letters patent." — Ut, si in Britannia
foret, &e. Agricola was immediately recalled ; but the suspicious
Domitian feared that he might maintain his post by force ; and the
sending of this confidential freedman with letters patent, conferring
on him the government of Syria, was merely a device to draw him

200 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XL,

away from Britain. If Agricola were already on his way to Rome,
that would be unnecessary ; and, accordingly, the freedman, meet-
ing Agricola on his journey, returned to Rome without delivering
the letters. — In ipso freto oceani. The Straits of Dover. — Ex ingenio
principis. " In accordance with the character of the prince.',

Tradiderat interim Agricola, &c. Dio Cassius (liii., 15) mentions
an ordinance of Augustus, directing that, whenever a successor ar-
rived, the previous governor should immediately resign his authority,
and return home within three months after this. The successor
of Agricola was probably Sallustius Lucullus, who, as Suetonius in-
forms us, was put to death by Domitian for permitting certain lan-
ces of a new construction to be called Lucullean. (Suet., Bom., 10.)
The possession of the Highlands was lost after Agricola was re-
called. (Compare Hist., i., 2.) — Ac, ne notabilis celebritate, &c.
"And lest his entrance into the city might be too conspicuous,
through the rank and numbers of those going out to meet him."
We must not, as some do, make celebritate and frequentia synony-
mous. The two terms are quite distinct, the former referring to
rank, the latter to number. (Compare Botticher : " durch Glanz und
Menge der Entgegenkommenden ;" and consult Lex. Tac, s. v.) — Ami-
corum officio. " The salutation of his friends." (Compare Cic. pro
Muran., 33, and Ernesti, Clav. Cic, s. v. Officium.)

Exceptusque brevi osculo. "And having been received with a
slight kiss." To salute with a kiss was an ordinary custom among
the Romans, and the warmer the friendship the heartier the saluta-
tion. Under the emperors the custom still continued, and the prince
was wont to receive with a kiss the more distinguished of those who
sought an audience with him. This, however, soon became the
breve osculum, or slight ceremonious salutation, amounting to a mere
matter of form; and in some cases, even, it was not given. (Con-
sult Suet., Oth., 6; Ner., 37; Bom., 12; Bio Cass., lix., 30;
Schwartz, ad Plin., Paneg., 24, 2, &c.) — Turbce servientium. " With
the servile throng," i. e., of courtiers, &c. — Ut militare nomen, &c.
" That he might soften down the glare of military reputation, op-
pressive to those who lead lives of inaction," &c. As otium is com-
monly used in opposition to bellum, so by otiosi here are properly
meant the mere men of peace, if we may so express it, or, in other
words, mere civilians. — Tranquillitatem atque otium penitus auxit.
" He gave himself up entirely to tranquillity and ease." Penitus is
here equivalent to prorsus, omnino, valde. (Compare Cic, Off., ii.,
18 : " Consuetudynem .... penitus amisimus.")

Cultu modicus, &c. " Plain in his mode of life, affable in conver-

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XL., XLI. 201

sation, accompanied (only) by one or two of his friends." Observe
that cultus here has a general reference, and is not to be restricted
to mere attire. (Compare the version of Walch : " einfach in Le-
lensweise ;" and also that of Botticher : " machte wenig Aufwand") —
Comitatus. Used passively, as in Cicero, de Or'., iii., 6: " Eodem
est instructs ornatuque comitata." (Consult Voss., de Anal., iii., p. 26.)
Per ambitionem. " By the appearance which they make in pub-
lic." (Compare Brotier : * Ex vitce splendore et numeroso comitatu")
— Mstimare. " To form an opinion of." (Consult note on astimaret,
chap, v.) — Qucererent famam. " Called in question his renown," i. e.,
missed the splendor which they had looked for in one so renowned,
and, therefore, began to doubt the very existence of that renown
itself. — Fauci interpretarentur. " Few could interpret his conduct,"
i. e., few understood his motives.

CHAPTER XLI.

Crebro per eos dies, &c. Among the enemies of Agricola may be
mentioned M. Regulus, Veiento, and Publius Certus. Their accu-
sations were made in secret, and hence absens accusatus. Domi-
tian, however, felt himself the gross injustice of these charges, and,
therefore, acquitted Agricola at once, without either notifying him
of these accusations or calling upon him for any defence ; and hence
absens absolutus est. This explanation will show the true force of
absens here, and how erroneous is the reading of Augustinus, men-
tioned by Ursinus, namely, prcesens absolutus est. ( Ursin., Fragm.
Vet. Hist., p. 461.) — Non crimen ullum, &c. " No crime against the
state, nor a complaint from any individual who had been injured by
him," i. e., no offence either public or private. (Compare Walch :
" kein Verbrechen, nicht Klagen eines Verletzten") — Laudantes. " Eu-
logists." Every word of praise bestowed upon Agricola would ex-
cite, of course, the jealousy of the tyrant.

Sileri. " To be passed over in silence." — Tot ezercitus, &c. This
refers to the war with the Daci, Marcomanni, and Quadi, in the
years 86-91, which ended with Domitian's second mock-triumph.
The Romans, however, were, in fact, defeated, and Domitian was
obliged to conclude peace with Decebalus, king of the Daci, on very
humiliating terms. — Tot militares viri, &c. " So many men of mil-
itary character, together with so many cohorts, defeated and taken
prisoners." (Compare Lucret., iv., 1008 : " Reges expugnare ;" and
Liv., xxiii., 30 : " Obsessos fame expugnavit.") — De limite imperii.
This, in all probability, must be looked for in the line of Roman

202 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLL, XLII.

forts still visible between Peterwardein and Bees, on the Teis.
(Compare Mannert, iv., p. 170.)— Ripa. "The river's bank." There
is no reference here to the Rhine. The right bank of the Danube
is meant, as far as the Quadi and Mareomanni.

Funeribus et cladibus. " By losses of leaders and overthrows of
armies." Funeribus refers to the militares viri mentioned previ-
ously, and cladibus to the forces under their charge. (Dronke, ad
loc.) Compare the version of Botticher : " bedeutenderer Manner
Tod und grosse Niederlagen." — Cum inertia et formidine reorum.
" With the indolence and pusillanimity of those who were now ac-
cused of (incapacity)," i. e., by the voice of the people. Reorum is
a conjectural reading ; the MSS. have eorum. Reus is frequently
used, not merely in a strictly legal sense in opposition to accusator,
petitor, actor, but with a more extended meaning. (Walch, ad loc.)

Dum optimus quisque libertorum, &c. " While each best one of
his freedmen, through affection and fidelity, the worst through ma-
lignity and envy, kept urging to the choice a prince prone of him-
self to follow the worst advisers." Dum is more usually followed
by the present tense ; but there is nothing in the conjunction itself
which necessarily requires this, and the imperfect, as here, is &me-
times found with it.

In ipsam gloriam prceceps agebatur. The idea intended to be con-
veyed by these words is, that Agricola's virtues, which were ma-
liciously magnified by his enemies, raised his reputation and glory ;
but that this very glory was the cause of his ruin.

CHAPTER XLII.
. Quo proconsulatum Asia, &c. " In wThich he was to draw lots
for the proconsulate of Asia and Africa." Observe that et has here,
in fact, a disjunctive force, two distinct proconsulates being made
the subject of lot, and the two senior consulars casting lots for the
same. Some editors, therefore, have conjectured aut for et] but
this is unnecessary, since both provinces were, in fact, equally drawn
for. {Mercer, ad Ann., iii., 32; Ernesti, ad loc.) If it was still the
custom for the legati Casarum and proconsuls to wait five years
before they again drew lots for the provinces (Dio Cass., liii., 14),
the period referred to in the text would be the year 89 or 90. — Oc-
ciso Civica. The reference is to Civica Cerialis, who, according
to Suetonius (Dom., 10), was put to death in his proconsulate of
Asia, on the charge of meditating a revolt. — Consilium. " A lesson."
— Exemplum. " A precedent." (Compare the remark of Brotier i

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLII. 203

" Occiso Civica, nee Agricola deerat consilium, ut invidiam prineipis
timeret, nee Domitiano exemplum, ut virtutem innocentis opprimeret.^)

Cogitationum prineipis periti. "Acquainted with the secret in-
clinations of the prince," i. e., his wish that Agricola should not ac-
cept the foreign government. — Occultius. " Somewhat distantly."
— In approbanda excusatione. " In making good his excuse (to the
emperor)," i. e., his excuse for not accepting the proconsulate.
(Compare, as regards the force of approbanda, the notes on chap, v.)
— Non jam obscuri. This is a correction for non tarn obscuri, and
answers infinitely better to primo occultius. Besides, ita, not tarn,
would be required.

Paratus simulations So " paratus peditatu" (Cic., ad Att., ix., 13).
— In arrogantiam compositus. " Having assumed a stately air." —
Agi sibi gratias passus est. Obliging persons to return thanks for
an injury was a refinement in tyranny frequently practiced by the
worst of the Roman emperors. Thus, Seneca (de Tranq. An., 14)
informs us that Caligula was thanked by those whose children had
been put to death, and whose property had been confiscated.
(Aiken, ad loc.) — Nee erubuit beneficii invidia. "Nor blushed at the
invidious nature of the favor," i. e., nor did he blush that Agricola
should receive as a favor so marked an injury. Observe that in-
vidia is here, in fact, for res invidiosa.

Salarium. This was an allowance for the maintenance oftthe
governor. The word is derived from sal, and means, properly,
money given for purchasing salt. Compare Horace (Sat., i., 5,
46) : " Parochi prcebent ligna salemque quce debent." It was first
granted by Augustus, and amounted sometimes to two hundred and
fifty thousand drachmae, over forty thousand dollars. (Consult Bio
Cass., lii., 23; lxxviii., 22.) — Ne quod vetuerat videretur emisse.
11 Lest he might seem to have purchased what he had forbidden," i.
e., lest it might seem a bribe for what he had, in reality, extorted by
his authority.

Proprium humani ingenii est. " It is a principle of human nature."
As regards the sentiment expressed by the clause, compare Seneca
(de Ira, ii., 33) : " Hoc habent pessimum animi magna fortuna inso-
lentes, quos Iceserunt, et oderunt." — Sciant, quibus moris est, illicita
mirari, &c. " Let those know whose custom it is to admire un-
lawful things," &c, i. e., to admire every opposition to control. Illi-
cita refers to the contumacia and inanis libertatis jactatio, frequently
assumed by Stoics in those times ; as, for example, when Helvidius
Priscus openly celebrated the birth-day of Brutus and Cassius.
(Consult Dio Cass., lxvi., 12, 13, 15.) — Eo laudis excedere,quo, &c

204 NOTE3 ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLIl., XLIII.

" Attain unto the same degree of praise as that to which many,
through abrupt and dangerous paths, but without any benefit to their
country, have brilliantly attained by an ambitious death." Observe
that inclaruerunt is equivalent here to clarescentes pervenerunt. By
abrupta is meant what Tacitus elsewhere {Ann., iv., 20) calls abrupta
contumaciam opposed to deforme obsequium. The sense of the whole
passage is this : " Obsequium et modestia, si industria ac vigor adsint,
co glories, perveniunt, quo multi pervenire solent, per abruptam contuma-
ciam mortem ambitiose quarentes, sed rempublicam nihil juvantes"

CHAPTER XLIII.
Finis vitce, &c. The death of Agricola was, as his biographer
plainly hints in what follows, either immediately caused or certainly
hastened by the emissaries of Domitian, who could not bear the
presence of a man pointed out by universal feeling as alone fit to
meet the exigency of times in which the Roman arms had suffered
repeated reverses in Germany and the countries north of the Dan-
ube. Dio Cassius (lxvi., 20) says expressly that he was killed by
Domitian. — Extraneis etiam ignotisque non sine cura fuit. The epi-
gram of Antiphilus (Anthol. Brunck, ii., 180) is commonly supposed
to refer to the celebrated Agricola.

a. KpTjvatat IcSddec, ri netysvyaTe ; nov rboov vSup ;

Tig <p^b^ aevaovc eoBeoev acklov ;
p. Aatcpvatv 'AypiKoTiao TerpvjLLsda, irav d' ogov TjfMlv
yHv ttotov, 7) kslvov dcipac exel trrrodt^ :
which Grotius translates :

Quo fontis laticest quo copia vestra recessit 1

Perpetuas soils quis color hausit aquas 1
Agricola luctu consumimur ; illius ante
Humida, nunc fiunt pulverulenta siti.

Et hie aliud agens populus. " And the class that busy themselves
about other people's affairs." (Compare the explanation of Walch :
" Der gesch'dftlose, um fremde, ihm nichts angehende Dinge, sich Jcum-
mernde gross e Haufe.") So Forcellini: " Aliud agere et alias res agere
est vel de quo agitur dissimulare, vel ad alias res animum advertere."
The explanation given by Pichena is wrong, though approved of by
Ernesti ; namely, " Publicas res nihil curans, sed suis negotiis inten-
tus." — Circulos. " Private circles."

Nobis nihil comperti affirmare ausim. " For my own part, I can
not venture to affirm that any thing has been found out by us for

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLIII., XLIV. 205

certain." Supply esse after nihil compertt, and refer nobis to the
family and friends of Agricola. The clause is very obscurely word-
ed, so much so, indeed, as to lead to the suspicion that the text has
been corrupted. Various emendations, therefore, have been sug-
gested by different editors, but all more or less unsatisfactory. The
best of these, however, is that of Peerlkamp : Nobis nihil compertum
(scil. esse) affirmare ausim.

Crebrius quam ex more principatus, &c. " More frequently than
accords with the custom of sovereigns, who pay visits merely by
formal messages." Literally, " the custom of sovereignty, visiting
by means of messages." — Medicorum intimi. " The most confiden-
tial of the physicians (of the palace)," i. e., those who were deepest
in the secrets and -confidence of the prince. — Sive cur a Mud, &c.
"Whether that were anxiety for his recovery, or a prying into the
progress of his disorder."

Momenta deficientis. " The successive moments of the sinking
man," i. e., the different stages of the death-struggle. (Compare
Botticher : " die Stadien des Todeskampfes") — Per dispositos cursores.
It appears that Domitian was at this time at his Alban villa, or cer-
tainly absent somewhere from Rome. (Rhenan., ad loc.) — Sic accel-
erari qua tristis audiret. " That tidings which he could hear with
sadness were thus accelerated," i. e., that so much pains was taken
to accelerate information which could prove other than acceptable.
— Animo vultuque. " In feeling and in look," i. e., he assumed a
studied look of sorrow, as if it actually came from the heart. Hand,
who makes this an instance of hendiadys, explains it by " animo, qui
in vultu appareV (ad TurselL, ii., p. 477). Dronke, however, still
more neatly, by "vultum ita composuit quasi animo dolor em concepis-
set."

Quo coh&redem optima uxori, &c. This, of course, would be the
best way of securing to his family a portion of his property. (Com-
pare Ann., xvi., 11 : u Nee defuere qui monerent, magna ex parte he-
redem Casarem nuncupare, atque ita nepotibus de reliquo consulere")
— PiissimcB. "Most dutiful," i. e., most devotedly affectionate. —
Lcetatum cum velut honor e judicioque. " He was delighted therewith
as if it had been an honorable testimony in his favor." Honor e judici-
oque is, by hendiadys, for judicio honorifico.

CHAPTER XLIV.
Natus erat Agricola, &c. The early editions, down to the time
of Ursinus and Lipsius, have Caio Cces. ter. cons., which these edj

206 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLIV.

tors enlarged to Caio Casare tertium cons., and from that period ter-
tium consuls has remained the common reading. But Caligula's
third consulate was in the year 793 ; the consulate of Collega and
Priscus in 846. According to this, therefore, Agricola would have
died in the fifty-fourth year of his age, being fifty-three years, two
months, and ten days old. To get over this difficulty, some suppose
that Tacitus wrote LIV, and' not LVI ; others, that he wrote pri-
mum instead of tertium. The first consulate of Caligula was in 790,
so that the latter supposition is the more likely of the two, and we
have accordingly followed it in the text. If, then, we take 790 as the
year of Agricola's birth, he would be fifty-six years, two months, and
ten days old, and, accordingly, properly in his fifty-seventh year. But
sexto et quinquagesimo anno mortuus est may mean that he died either
before or after the completion of his fifty-sixth year. Suetonius
{Aug. ,26) says of Augustus : " Consul atum vicesimo cetatis anno inva-
sit" This was when Augustus wanted thirty-six days of having
completed his twentieth year. Livy (Ep., 119), on the contrary, says
" Nonum decimum agens," of a youth who was above nineteen years
and ten months old. Now Agricola was praetor under Nero, and,
therefore, before June 9th, 821. According to Dio Cassius (lii.,
20), he must have then completed his twenty-ninth year. Taking
the extreme case, if he was praetor after August 23d, 820, he must
have been born in 791. But this is impossible, as Caligula was not
consul in that year ; and, accordingly, we can only suppose that he
was born in 790, and thus he would be quaestor after the completion
of his twenty-fifth year, tribune after his twenty-seventh, praetor
after his twenty-ninth, and consul after his thirty-ninth year.

Habitum ejus. " His personal appearance." — Decentior quam sub-
limior fuit. "He was rather well-made than tall." Observe that
by decor habitus is meant the avfifierpia tov cufiaroc. (Boxhorn, ad
loc.) — Nihil metus in vultu, &c. "There was nothing in his coun-
tenance to inspire awe ; a sweetness of expression was its preva-
lent characteristic." Literally, " abounded." — Medio in spatio in-
tegrce cetatis ereftus. According to Tacitus himself elsewhere (Dial,
de Or., 17), an Integra atas, or full and complete period of human life,
was one hundred and twenty years : " Centum et viginti anni ab in-
teritu Ciceronis in hunc diem colliguntur, unius hominis cetas." — Quan-
tum ad gloriam. " Yet, as far as glory was concerned," i. e., if his
life be measured by the glory to which he attained.

Impleverat. " He had fully enjoyed." Equivalent, in effect, to
plene assecutus erat. Compare the Greek usage in the case of ava-
irXrjaai (Horn., Od., v., 208), and avanAypcJcai (Lucian, Q. H. C. S.

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLIV., XLV. 207

8.) — Speciosa contigerant. "A handsome fortune had fallen to his
lot." Dio Cassius (lxvi., 20) errs in saying that Agricola lived for
the remainder of his life in dishonor and in want (ev re arifita nal
h kvdeia). This is contradicted by his not asking for the proconsu-
lar allowance (chap, xlii.), and by what Tacitus says in chap. vi. —
Futura effugisse. " In having escaped from impending evils."

Nam sicuti durare in hac beatissimi sceculi luce, &c. " For, as he
used, in our hearing, to divine from auguries, and to express the de-
sire by many a wish, that he would still be continuing existence amid
this radiance of a most blissful age, and would behold Trajan em-
peror, so, on the other hand, has it brought with it a great consolation,
as regards his untimely death, that he thereby escaped that latter
period when Domitian no longer now by intervals, and after allowing
us time to breathe," &c. The common text has quod augurio votis-
que, &c. We have rejected quod, however, as suggested by Walch
and others, and have given what appears to be the best explanation
of this very difficult, and probably corrupt passage. The use of du-
rare and videre for se duraturum and visurum may be defended from
" Ratusque dedecus amoliri" {Ann., xiv., 14): " Nusquam eas (pe-
cunias) tutius sanctiusque deponere credentibus" (Liv., xxiv., 18) :
" An creditis. cequo animo Us servire" (Curt., iv., 14, 23). Observe,
moreover, the zeugma in ominabatur, and compare the explanation
of Walch, u et auguriis ominabatur et votis concupiscebat." The
omens here alluded to, and which were said to have foretold the
elevation of Trajan to the imperial throne, are spoken of by Dio
Cassius (lxvii., 12) and Pliny (Paneg., 5, 94). They occurred in
the year 844, and Agricola died in 846.

CHAPTER XLV.

Non vidit Agricola obsessam curiam. " Agricola did not live to see
the senate-house besieged." (Consult Suet., Dom., 10, 11 ; Plin.,
Ep., iii., 11 ; vii., 19 ; Dio Cass., lxvii., 12.) — Tot consularium cades.
Consult Suet., Bom., 10, 15. — Feminarum exsilia et fugas. As, for
example, Annia, Fannia, Gratilla, Flavia Domitilla, and Pontia Do-
mitilla. — Carus Metius. One of the most notorious informers
under Domitian. He is mentioned by Pliny (Ep., i., 5, 11 ; vii., 19,
27), Martial (xii., 25), and Juvenal (i., 36). According to the scho-
liast on Juvenal, he was an actor. — Una adhuc victoria censebatur.
"Was rated as yet for only a single victory," i. e., since as yet but
one victim had fallen beneath his accusations, no one could at that
time conceive the mischief which he was shortly about to bring upon

208 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLV.

the nation, and hence his power to injure was as yet rated compar-
atively low.

Et intra Albanam arcem, &c. " And the counsels of Messalinus
resounded (as yet) only through the Alban villa, and Massa Baebius
(himself) was even at that time among the accused." The arx Al-
bana was Domitian's villa, which he built on the Via Appia, at the
foot of the Alban Mount. * Catullus Messalinus was an informer,
concerning whom see Juvenal, iv., 113, seqq., and Bio Cassius,
lxvii., l. The meaning of Tacitus is, that Messalinus had not yet
ventured to become an open and public informer at Rome, but that
his accusations were as yet secret ones, and confined to the privacy
of the Alban villa. Massa Bebius, or Baebius, was one of the most
infamous informers of the latter end of the reign of Domitian. He
is first mentioned in A.D. 70, as one of the procurators in Africa,
when he betrayed Piso, and is described by Tacitus as "jam tunc
optimo caique exitiosus." {Hist., iv., 50.) He was afterward gov-
ernor of the province of Baetica, which he oppressed so unmercifully
that he was accused by the inhabitants on his return to Rome. The
cause of the provincials was pleaded by Pliny the younger and He-
rennius Senecio, and Massa was condemned in the same year that
Agricola died, A.D. 93 ; but he seems to have escaped punishment
by the favor of Domitian, and from this time became one of the in-
formers and great favorites of the tyrant.

Nostra manus. " Our own hands," i. e., the hands of one of our
own body, i. e., a senator. As Publicius Certus, a member of the
senate, had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, Tacitus
imputes the crime to the whole senatorian order, himself included.
Tacitus took his seat in the senate as a man of praetorian rank, after
841, and he uses the expression nostra manus, therefore, although
absent from Rome at the time when the arrest in question took place.
Compare, as regards the affair here alluded to, the language of the
younger Pliny (Ep., ix., 13) : " Inter multa scelera multorum nullum
atrocius videbatitr, quam quod in senatu senator senatori, pratorius con-
sulari, reo judex, manus intulisset" — Helvidium. This refers to Hel-
vidius the younger, and not to Helvidius Priscus, who was banished
and put to death in exile under the Emperor Vespasian. Helvidius
the younger was accused under pretence " quasi scenico exodio, sub
persona Paridis et (Enones, divortium Domitiani cum uxore taxasset"
(Suet., Bom., 10.)

Nos Maurici Rusticique visus, &c. " The spectacle of Mauricus
and Rusticus struck us with horror, Senecio bedewed us with his
innocent blood." This sentence affords a peculiar instance of the

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLV. 209

figure zeugma, where perfudit, as understood in the first clause, be-
comes equivalent to honore perculit. Mauricus and Arulenus Rusti-
cus were brothers, united not only by the ties of natural affection,
but by the virtues of their private character. They were cruelly
separated in the sight of the senate, when Rusticus was hurried
away to execution, and Mauricus ordered into banishment. (Com-
pare Hist., iv., 40 ; Ann., xvi., 26.) — Senecio. Consult notes on
chapter ii.

Videre etadspici. " To behold (him), and to be observed (by him).''
The peculiar meaning of adspici here, by which it rises in strength
above videre, is worthy of notice. The reference is to the searching
and suspicious look of the tyrant, and his watching the expression
of every countenance to detect some ground of accusation. (Com-
pare the explanation of Dronke : " ihn zu sehen, und von ihm beo-
bachtet zu werden.") — Subscriber entur. " Were made subjects of ac-
cusation against us." Others take the word to mean, simply, " were
secretly noted down ;" but this wants force in the present instance,
however well it might answer in other passages. The evil com-
plained of here was encouraged under Tiberius {Ann., iv., 30), Ca-
ligula, Claudius, and Nero ; repressed under Vespasian and Titus
{Hist., iv., 44), but reached its height under Domitian.

Sufficeret scevus Me vultus et rubor. "That stern countenance,
with its settled redness, never tired. " Domitian's complexion was
of so deep a red that nothing could add to his natural color, and he
was, therefore, said by Pliny to be a man of unblushing impudence,
"in ore impudentia multo rubore suffusa" (Paneg., 48). — Quo . . ,
muniebat. The old reading was a quo. This might, perhaps, mean
a quo auxilium petens se muniebat.

Opportunitate mortis. "In the seasonableness of thy death.'*
(Compare the language of Cicero, in speaking of the orator Crassus :
" Ego vero te, Crasse, cum vitce flore, turn mortis opportunitate, divino
consilio et ortum et exstinctum arbitror") — Constans et libens. " With
firmness and cheerfulness." — Tamquam pro virili portione, &c. " As
if, so far as lay in thy power, thou wast bestowing innocence upon
thy sovereign," i. e., as if, so far as lay in thy power, thou didst
wish, by thy calmness and serenity, to show that Domitian was
guiltless of thy death.

Filiaque. Tacitus's wife. This is a correction for filioque. Agrie-
ola's sons were both dead. — Assidere valetudini. " To sit by thy
sick-bed." Literally, " by thy sickness." — Nobis tarn longa absenticc
conditione, &c. " To us wast thou lost four years before, by the cir-
cumstance of so long an absence." Observe that ante quadnennium

210 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLV., XLVI.

is for quadriennio ante. So ' multos ante annos" for multis annis ante
{Ami., xiv., 9). It appears that Tacitus and his wife, at the time
of Agricola's death, had been four years absent from Rome, on what
account we are nowhere informed. Some critics suppose that he
Was banished by Domitian, but this seems to be without any foun-
dation. The fact of his absence may be gathered, also, from Pliny
(Ep., vii., 33) ; for the request which he makes, that Pliny would
furnish him with a detailed account of Senecio's suit against Bebius,
was occasioned by his being away at the time from the capital. He
was present, however, at Senecio's death, in the year 846, wThen
he returned from the administration of his praetorian province.

Omnia sine dubio, &c. " Every mark of attention, beyond a doubt,
O best of parents, was abundantly rendered unto thee, their honored
object." Literally, " all things, &c, abounded for thy honor," i. e.,
for honoring thee, and*making thy last moments comfortable. — Com-
positus est. " Thou wast laid at rest," i. e., thy ashes were gathered
into their last resting-place, the funeral urn. The verb componcre,
like the Greek nepLOTeTileiv, is especially used in this sense. Com-
pare Orelli {ad Hor., Sat., i., 9, 28) : " Composui, ut nepLari^eLV,
* beisetzen,' de sepultura, imprimis de cineribus collectis atque in urna
conditis." — Aliquid. The reference is to his daughter and Tacitus.

CHAPTER XLVI.

Si quis piorum manibus locus. " If there be any abiding-place for
the shades of the virtuous." The religious opinions of Tacitus par-
took of the character of his age : he had no strong convictions, no
settled belief of a moral government of the world ; his love of virtue
and his abhorrence of vice were purely moral ; they had no refer-
ence to a future existence. (Compare Ann., iii., 18 ; vi., 22.) On
the present occasion, in this, one of his earliest productions, he
hopes, rather than expects, that the souls of the departed may still
live and be conscious of what is passing on earth ; but in his latest
writings there are no traces that his hopes or his wishes had ever
ripened into a belief.

Ab infirmo desiderio. " From weak regret." — Et immortalibus lau-
v dibus, &c. The text here is very uncertain. We have given the
reading of the best editions, which is adopted also by Bekker. The
common text has temporalibus laudibus .... militum decoramus.
(Consult Walther, ad loc?) — Mmulatu. " By an imitation of thy ex-
ample."— Pietas. " The affectionate duty." — Famamque ac Jiguram
animiy &c. " And ever embrace in thought the glorious features of

NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLVI. 211

his mind rather than those of his person." Observe the hendiadys
in f amain acfiguram. Some editors prefer formam acfiguram, which
is justly condemned by Walch as not in accordance with the his-
torical style of Tacitus : " Nirgend stehen, in Tacitus' 's historischen
Schriften, Dehnungen wie, Gestalt und Bild der Seele."

Non quia intercedendum putem imaginibus. "Not because I think
that we should reject those resemblances (of the departed)." Lit-
erally, " not because I think that we must put our veto upon those
resemblances." The verb intercede-, here employed in its figurative
sense, refers properly to the interposing of a veto on the part of a
magistrate who has the right so to do. (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v.
Intercessio.)

Non per alienam materiam et artem. " Not by means of any foreign
material and through another's skill," i. e., through the artist's skill.
— Manet mansurumque est. " Remains, and is destined to remain, in
the hearts of men, in the eternal lapse of ages, in the fame of his
achievements." Observe that/ama rerum is only another designa-
tion for history.

INDEX OF PLACES IN TACITUS,

WHICH ARE QUOTED OR REFERRED TO IN BOTTICHER's REMARKS ON
HIS STYLE.

ANNALES.

BOOK I.

Chap.

1 xlviii., li. (bis.)

2 xxvii., xxxi.

3 xliv., 1.

5 xxxii.

6 xxx vii., xl.

7 xxxvii., xliv., xlv.

8 xl.

10 xxxii.

1 1 xxxix.

12 xlii., xlv.
21 xxxviii.

27 liii., liv.

28 xl.
31 xlv., lv.
33 xxxvii.
35 xli., xliv.

39 xxx., xlii.

40 xlvi.
44 liii.
47 xliv.
51 xxxvi.

54 lv.

55 xlii.

57 xli., xlii.

58 xxxvi., xliii.

59 xli., liii.

61 lv.

62 xxxi.

63 xxxviii.
65 xliv.
68 xxix.

73 xliv.

74 xxix., xxxv.
79 liv.
81 xxix.

BOOK II.

1 xxxv.

2 xxix.

3 xxx.

4 liii.

ANNALES.

BOOK II.
Chap.

5 xxx.

7 xxx.
15 xxxii.
20 xxx.

25 lv. (bis.)
27 xxxviii.

32 xxxiv.

33 xxxiv.

34 xxxix. (bis.)

38 xl.

39 xxxiv., xlii., li., liv.

40 xxxiv., xlii.
44 xxxvii.

46 1.

47 liv. (bis.)
54 xxxv.

56 lv.

57 xxxvi., lii.
59 xxxv.
62 xxx.
64 1.

70 xxxi.

71 xxxvii.
73 xliii.

81 xxxviii.

82 xliv., xlv.

BOOK III.

2 xxxiv.

5 xxx.

8 xxx.
14 1.

19 xlii., xlv.

20 xxx.
24 xli.

26 xlv.

30 xxxi., xlv.

31 xxxi.
34 xxvi.

38 xxvii., xxxviii.

39 xxxvi.

ANNALES.

BOOK III.

Chap.

Page

xxxix., li.

xxxii.

xxxvii.

xxvii.

li.

xxxiii. (note.)

li.

lvi.

liii.

XXV.

BOOK IV.

1 xxviii., xxix.

2 xxxv., xxxvii.

3 xxxvii., xl.

5 xli.

6 li.
9 xiii.

xxix.

li.

lv.

lvi.

xxxvii.

xxvii.

li.

xliii., liv.

xxxix., li.

xxxiv.

xxxv., lv.

32-33

xxiv. (note.)

xxvi.

xxvii., xl.

40 xxxi

, xxxix., xlii.

XXV.

lvi.

xxxi.

lii.

liii.

xliv., li.

214

INDEX.

ANNALES.

ANNALE3.

BOOK IV.

BOOK

XII.

BOOK XV.

Chap.

Page

Chap.

Page

Chap

Page

XXX.

li.

xli., 1.

xxxvii.

xxx.

liv.

xxix.

xxxv.

lii.

xxxv.

xxxvii.

BOOK V.

xli., lvi.

xxxi.

li.

xxxv.

xxvi.

xxxii.

xxix.

xxxv.

BOOK VI.

liv.

lv.

xxxix., xl.

xxxviii.

xli.

xliv.

xxxvi.

xxxi.

9
10
12

liii.

lv.

xxix.

xliv.
xxv., lii.

50
51

liii.
xxxi., xxxvii.

62
73

lv.
xlviii.

21
22
24

xliii.
xxxi.

xliii.

58
65

xxix.
lv.

xxxii.

7
9

BOOK XVI.

xxvii.
liv.

xl.

BOOK

XIII.

xxvii.

xxxiii., xl.

xxxi.

lv.

xxix.

xxx., lii.

xxxix.

xxix.

xliv.

lv.

xxxvi.

21
23

xxix.
1.

HISTORIC.

xxxiv.

lv.

BOOK I.

40
42
43

XXXV.

lvi.
xxxvi.

xxx.

xlix., lv.

41
44

xliv., liv.
xxxiv.

xlv.
xliii.

xxxi., xxxvi.

lv.

xxxi.

xxvii., xxviii.

XXXII., XXXIX.

xxx.

BOOK XI.

xlm.

xxxvi., xxxviii.

liii.

lv.

xxxvii.

BOOK

XIV.

xxxii.

xxvi., xxxviii.

xxxii.

xxxix., xli.

xxxiv.

xxxvi.

xxxviii.

xxvi., xxviii.

xxviii., xxxii.,

xlv.

xxxvi.

xxxv.

xxvii., xxix.,

xxxv., xl., 1.

xli.

xxxix.

XXXV.

xliv., xlv.

xli.

xlv.

xli.

li.

xxxviii.

xxxii.

xxix.

xlii.

xlix. (note.)

lv.

xlv

xxx., xxxi.

xxix.

xxxiv

xxvii. (bis.)

xxxvii.

xxxii.

xlv.

xxviii

xxxviii., 1.

44
49

xlv.

lii

BOOK XII.

xxviii.

BOOK II.

xxviii.

xxxvi.

xlix

xli.

xxxv., 1.

xlix

INDEX. *

•

215

HISTORIC.

GERMANIA.

BOOK

II.

BOOK IV.

BOOK V.

Chap.

Page

Chap

Page

Chap

Page

xxxii.

xxvi.

xlviii.

xxxix.

xxxvii.

liv.

xxix.

xxxviii.

xxxvi.

xliv.

xliii.

xl.

xli., xliii.

23
32

XXXV.

xxviii.

xxxiv,

xliv.

AGRICOLA.

lvi.

xxxvi.

xxxiii. (note.)

xl.

1., lii., lvi.

xxxiii. (note.)

liv.

lii.

xxix.

xliv., lii.

xlii.

lii.

lv.

xlix.

xxxix.

lvi.

xlv.

xxxix.

xxxvi.

xlii.

100

xxvi.

BOOK V.

16
17

xlvi.
xxxix.

BOOK

in.

xxxiv.

xl., xlii., liii.

xxxi.

liv.

xliv., li.

xxviii. (bis), 1.

lv.

22 xxxiv., xxxix., lv.

XXVlll.

liv.

(bis.)

XXXV

., xxxvii.

xxxvii.

lii., liv.

xlix.

33
35

xliv.

xlv.

lv.

20
26

xxxvi.
xl.

GERMANIA.

xli.

xxxv., xliii.

xxix.

xxvi.

XXXV.

liii.

xliii.

xxxvii.

DIALO

xli.

liv.

TORIBUS.

xlii.

xlviii.

lii.

xxxvi.

xxxi.

xlvi.

liii.

lv.

xxxii.

xxxiv.

xxxii., lv.

liii.

XXX

., xxxvii.

xlviii.

18 xxiv. (note), xxvii.

xxix.

33 xxxii. (note), xlvi.,

xxxiv.

XXX.

lii.

xxiv. (note), xl.

xxvi.

xxviii., xxxvi.,

xli.

xl.

xxxvii.

xxix.

xxxii., 1.

BOOK

IV.

xliii.

xlvi.

xxxi.

xlvi.

ylv

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX

THE GERMANIA.

Abnoba Mons. A name given to that part of the Black Forest
where the Danube commences its course, and which lies opposite
the town of Augusta Rauracorum, now Augst. A stone altar, with
ABNOBA inscribed, was discovered in the Black Forest in 1778 ;
and in 1784 a pedestal of white marble was found in the Duchy of
Baden, bearing the words DIANAE ABNOBAE. These remains
of antiquity, besides throwing light on the situation of the ancient
Abnoba Mons, settle also the orthography of the name, which some
commentators incorrectly write Arnoba. (Compare La Germanic
de Tacite, par Panckoucke, p. 4, and the Atlas to the same work,
Planche Deuxieme) . . . . . . . . . c. 1

iEsTYi. A nation of ancient Germany, whose name still remains
in that of the Esthen. They inhabited Prussia, Livonia, and Cour-
land. Some think that the name merely means " the people of the
East" c. 45

Albis. The River Elbe, which, according to Tacitus, rose among
the Hermunduri. This was the easternmost stream in Germany
with which the Romans became acquainted in the course of their
expeditions ; and they knew it, moreover, only in the northern part
of its course. The only Roman who passed this stream with an
army was L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, A.U.C. 744, and though he
made no further progress, yet the passage of the Albis obtained for
him the insignia of a triumph. The name is said to be derived from
the old northern term elf or elf a, which, in the early German, be-
came Alba or Elba, and means " a river." Thus Becker remarks
(Organism, der Sprache, p. 96), " der nordische Gemeinname elfa (Fluss)
ist in dem deutschen Elbe Eigenname geworden." (Compare Meidin-
ger, Etym. Wdrterbuch, p. 533 ; Ersch und Gruber, Encyclop., ii., p.
328 ; and Graff, ahd. Sprachschatz, I, p. 243) . . . c. 41

Alpes r^etic^e. The Raetian Alps, that portion of the chain

218 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

which separated Italy from Ragtia, and which extended from the
St, Gothard, whose numerous peaks bore the name of Adula, to
Mount Brenner, in the Tyrol. The Lepontine Alps, which commence
immediately west of the Rsetian, form in one sense a part of them,
so that Adula, in fact, belongs to both c. 1

Angli. A German tribe, the earliest record of whom we find in
Tacitus (Germ. , c. 40). But this author only mentions their name,
states a few particulars relative to their religion, and intimates that
they were a branch of the Suevi. He appears to have known very
little about them. They are not mentioned in the expeditions of
Drusus and Tiberius, and, therefore, probably, were at that time on
the east of the Elbe. Ptolemy places them on the west, in what is
now Magdeburg. D'Anville has in his map assigned to them the
same district which they occupied in the fifth century, before their
emigration to England, and parts of which the modern Angles still
occupy. He allots to them the greatest portion of modern Schleswig,
and some part of Holstein, making the German Ocean their western
boundary, the Saxons their nearest neighbors on the south, the Va-
rini on the southeast, and the Jutes on the north. It is impossible
to fix with accuracy any boundaries for the Angli from the account
given by Tacitus ; but his statement appears perfectly reconcilable
with D'Anville's map and the Saxon Chronicle. About the middle
of the fifth century (449) a large body of Saxons and Angles, led by
Hengist and Horsa, sailed over to England, and established perma-
nent settlements in the island. The Angles, howrever, seem to have
prevailed in numbers or influence, for it was they that gave the
name to their new country, Angel-land, Anglia (England), though it
was sometimes called Saxonia Transmarina. The name Anglo-
Saxons, which comprises both Angles and Saxons, was invented by
later historians for the sake of convenience. (Penny Cyclop., vol.
ii., p. 24; xx., p. 492. — Mannert, vol. hi., p. 294) . . . c. 40

Angrivarii. A German tribe dwelling on the east of the Visur-
gis, or Weser, between the Cauci and Cherusci, and extending over
a part of Luneberg and Calcnberg to the Steinhuder See, which formed
the boundary between them and the Cherusci, and on both sides of
the River Alter. The Leine seems to have formed their southeastern
boundary. On the northeast they reached to the neighborhood of
the Elbe. It appears that they dwelt, also, on the west of the Vi-
surgis (Ann., ii., 8). Traces of their name are still found near the
Elbe, in Angern, Engern, Engershausen, Angermunde, &c. (Com-
pare Mannert, vol. iii., p. 278, seqq.) . . . . c. 33, 34

Aravisci, A German tribe, placed by some between the Arabo

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 219

(Raab) and the Danube. Mannert makes them to have dwelt in the
easternmost angle, between the Danube and the Saave (vol. in., p.
569 c. 28

Arii. A German tribe, supposed to have lived by the Sudetan
Mountains, in the neighborhood of Arnsdorf and Arnsberg. Their
name appears to contain the same root which we find in the names
of many nations of the Indo- Germanic family ; and it is not im-
probable that all the different branches of the Indo-Germanic race
may have originally been called by this name. According to He-
rodotus (vii., 61, 62), the Medes were originally called Arii, and the
Persians Artai. These names are identical with the Sanscrit word
Arya (which means " honorable," " entitled to respect"), by which,
in the ancient writings of the Hindus, the followers of the Brahman-
ical law are designated (see Rosen, in " Quarterly Journal of Ed-
ucation," vol. ix., p. 336). India Proper is called in the most ancient
Sanscrit wrorks Arya-varta, (" holy land)." The same name was re-
tained in the province of Aria and Ariana (called in the Zend lan-
guage Airyane), whence the modern Persian name Iran is deriv-
ed c. 43

Asciburgium. The modern Asburg, on the left bank of the Rhine,
or the neighboring hamlet of Essenberg. (Consult notes on chap,
iii.) c. 3

Aviones. A German tribe, of whose position nothing certain is
known. They probably lived near Lauenburg. (Compare Mannert,
vol. iii., p. 337) . . . . . . . . . c. 40

Bastarn^e. Vid. Peucini.

Batavi. (Quantity of the penult doubtful, but more frequently
long than short.) A German tribe, who occupied the island formed
by the Vahalis ( Waal) and Mosa (Meuse), and also that formed by
the northern arm of the Rhine (or Rhine of Leyden), the "Vahalis
and Mosa after their confluence, and the ocean. They seem, also,
from the language of Tacitus (Germ., c. 29), to have occupied a
small tract on the banks of the Rhine, not included in the insula
Batavorum, as it is called by Caesar (B. G., iv., 10). The Batavi,
therefore, were the inhabitants of South Holland and some adjacent
parts. They became the allies of the Romans under Augustus.
Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, dug the canal called Fossa Drusiana,
which joins the Rhine and Yssel. On the northwestern part of
the island dwelt another people of the same origin as the Batavi,
the Canninefates (Hist., iv., 15), whose chief town was Lugdunum

220 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Batavorum, now Ley den. The chief towns of the Batavi were Ba-
tavodurum, afterward called Noviomagus, now Nymegen or Nimue-
gen; Arenacum, now Arnheim; and Trajectum, now Utrecht. The
name Batavi is preserved in that of Betuwe, the name of the district
included between the Rhine of Leyden, the Waal, and the Lek.
After the death of Galba, when the army on the Rhine followed Vi-
tellius to Rome, Claudius Civilis roused the Batavi to a revolt, which
was shortly afterward suppressed. They were employed by Agric-
ola in his wars in Britain (Agric, 36). The changes which have
taken place in the land in this quarter render the geography some-
what difficult. In the time of Tacitus, most of the Zuyder Zee was
dry land. The rivers, especially the Rhine, have very much altered

their courses c. 29

Bon. The settlements of the once powerful Boii are found in
Gaul, and along both sides of the Danube from its source eastward,
probably as far as the mouth of the Enns ; toward the south, stretch-
ing to the mountains which separate Tyrol from Bavaria. The east-
ern part of Swabia, with the whole of Bavaria and Bohemia, which
took their names from them (Bavaria having been originally Boiaria),
belonged to them. They also occupied part of Moravia, and had
settlements on the banks of the Po. Whether Gaul or Germany
was their original country is uncertain : if the former, it would seem
that they accompanied the first Gallic migration mentioned by Livy
and others, and followed Segovesus into Germany, settling in Bo-
hemia ; but the facts that, for the most part, the tide of migration
set in westward, and that Bohemia has retained its name to this
day, seem to point to Germany as their original home. From Bo-
hemia they were expelled by the Marcomanni, and settled in Nori-
cum and Bavaria, where Boiodurum (Innstadt) took its name from
them. At some period or other, but when is uncertain, they crossed
the Alps, and established themselves in Italy, between the Tarus,
the Silarus, and the Apennines. They were subdued by the Ro-
mans under Scipio Nasica, and afterward removed to the banks of
the Brave. After this they were almost subdued in wars with the
Getae, and an extensive tract in this part was called Deserta Boio-
rum {Plin., iii., 24). Some of the Boii accompanied Brennus in his
invasion of Greece, and joined that part of his army which passed
into Asia Minor, and settled in the country called from them Gala-
tia, where one of the three divisions of the people bore the name
Tolistoboii. Some of the Boii also joined the Helvetii when they
migrated into Gaul, and were allowed by Caesar to settle among
the iEdui. (See Plin., iii., 20, 21 ; iv., 32. Polyb., i., 17 ; ii., 20.)

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 221

Boiemum, or Boihemum, probably means, "the home of the Boii"
(heim, heimath). Some, however, suppose that by Boiemum is
meant what Caesar calls oppidum Boiorum (B. G., vii., 9) in Gallia,
now Beaujolois c. 28, 42

Bructeri. (Called BovadfcrepoL by Ptolemy.) A German tribe,
who, in all their wars with the Romans, never changed their seats.
Toward the west, they reached to the Vech ; toward the south, to
the Lippe ; toward the east, almost to the Weser ; and toward the
north, they bordered on the Frisii and Cauci. Along the Lippe,
their territories extended probably from Lippstadt to Haltern ( Strabo,
vii., p. 291) ; and that they reached eastward at least as far as Lipp-
stadt, we gather from Tacitus. (Ann., i., 60.) For some time,
while the Romans were superior in this quarter, they seem to have
retired from the Lippe ; but they afterward returned. The Bructeri
were divided into the Bructeri Majores, who dwelt on the east, and
the Bructeri Minores, who dwelt on the west of the Amisia, or Ems.
They remained in their old settlements till the Cherusci, under the
common name of Franks, united all the tribes of this part into one
league, and henceforth we find them on the banks of the Rhine.
Toward the end of the first century, they were subdued by the Cham-
avi and Angrivarii, and, according to Tacitus, extirpated. But in
this he is most probably mistaken ; for we find the Roman com-
mander, Spurinna, engaged with them in the reign of Trajan ; and
in later times they appear as a powerful people among the Franks.
Their name was finally lost when they were overpowered by the
Saxons. It appears for the last time in a letter of Pope Gregory
III., about the year 720, where they are called Borthari. Their prin-
cipal towns were Osnabruga, MedioMviov (Metelri), Boyddiov (Bo-
cholt), and Hrepeovrtov (Steinfurt). (Eumenii Paneg. Const, diet.,
c. 12, 13 ; Nazarii Paneg., c. 18 ; Greg. Turon., ii., c. 9 ; Bed., Hist.
Eccles., iv., 11 ; Otklon., i., c. 37 ; as quoted by Mannert, vol. hi., p.
160, seqq.) c. 33

Buri. A German tribe living near the sources of the Viadrus
(Oder) and Vistula, and extending as far as Briga and Cracow, or
near to Troppau, in Silesia. In conjunction, first with the Daci, and
afterward with the Marcomanni, they waged war with Trajan, M.
Aurelius, and Commodus. (Bio Cass., lxviii., 8 ; Id., lxxi., 18 ; Id.,
lxxii., 2, 3) . . ' c. 43

Catti. A German tribe, separated from the Cherusci by the
Forest of Bacenis (Cas., B. G., vi., 10). It is doubtful wheth-

222 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

er by this is meant the Harz Mountains, or the west part of the
Thuringer Wald. The latter is the more probable. In the Mid-
dle Ages, the forest extending from Fulda to the Thuringer Wald
bore the name of Buchonia. The Sala Franconiae, with the Spes-
sart and Rhon Gebirge, formed the boundary between them and
the Hermunduri {Annal., xiii., 57). On the east their territories
were bounded by the Werra. On the south they reached to the
Mayn and the Hercynian Forest. After they took possession of the
district abandoned by the Ubii when they crossed the Rhine, their
territory extended to that river, between the Lahn and the Mayn.
On the north they bordered on a branch of the Cauci, so that the
Weser formed their boundary in this direction. On the west the
Tencteri were their neighbors ; so that in this quarter they reached
to the Mount Abnoba of Ptolemy (see c. 28). Thus their territory
comprehended that of the modern Hessians, Fulda, the earldoms of
Hanau and Isenburg, so much of Franconia as lies north of the Mayn
to the mouth of the Saale, part of Nassau, and the eastern portion
of the Duchy of Westphalia. Their principal towns were Novaloiov
{Nienhus), in Westphalia ; Mnhottavoc (Melschede) ; and Tpav'iovapiov
{ Grevener). Their name is the same as that of the Hessians : c in
Latin becomes h in German ; as in caput, haupt ; cards, hund ; canna-
bis, hanf, &c. : s and t are freely interchangeable ; as in das, that ; es,
it ; wasser, water, &c. The Catti were defeated by Drusus ; but
some time afterward they destroyed Varus and his legions. In the
reign of Tiberius, Germanicus overran the country ; but they con-
tinued in arms against the Romans for many years after, and aided
the revolt of the Batavi in the reign of Vitellius {Ann., i., 55, 56 ; ii.,
7, 25. Hist., iv., 37). They were also engaged in war with the Her-
munduri, by whom they were nearly extirpated {Ann., xiii., 57),
and with the Cherusci {G. 36). (Compare Mannert, vol. iii., p. 183,

seqq.) c. 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 38

Cauci. A German tribe, who dwelt along the ocean from the
Amisia {Ems) to the Albis {Elbe), and reached southward some-
what below what is now Ostfriesland, Oldenburg, and Bremen, al-
though along the Weser these boundaries often changed. Pliny and
Ptolemy divide them into the greater and the less : though Tacitus
does not make this distinction here, he alludes to it in his Annals
(xi., 19) ; and we gather from him that the Cauci major es ^welt be-
tween the Amisia and the Visurgis ; accordingly, the Cauci minores
must be looked for between the Visurgis and the Albis. Ptolemy
assigns them rather narrower limits ; as in his time the western
Cauci were more confined than in the age of Tacitus. The Cauci

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 223

were friends of the Romans in the expedition of Drusus, and still
more so in that of Tiberius (Ann., i., 60 ; ii., 17). Even after the
disaster of Varus, they continued their friendship, and Germanicus
made all his expeditions against the Cherusci from this side. But
here, again, the Romans roused the enmity of their allies, by pur-
suing the same policy as in the case of the Frisii. Under Gannas-
cus, they crossed the Rhine, and made incursions on the Roman
province of Germania Inferior (Ann., xi., 18) ; but were repulsed by
Corbulo. They afterward aided Civilis in the Batavian war (Hist.,
iv., 79 ; v., 19). Even after the expulsion of the Romans, they con-
tinued the enemies of the Cherusci, and felt themselves powerful
enough to drive this people from the west bank of the Weser, while
they ejected the Ansibarii (Ann., xiii., 55), and perhaps some more
southerly branches of the Cherusci, from their possessions along the
Weser ; and it is only after this that the remark of Tacitus applies
to them, that the southern angle of their territory bordered on one
side on the Cherusci, and on the other on the Catti. But the Lan-
gobardi, pressing westward to the Rhine, established themselves in
all the lands which had belonged to the Cherusci and their allies ;
and in the time of Ptolemy the Cauci were reduced within their
original boundaries. Ptolemy (ii., 11) mentions, as their towns,
$a6ipavov (Brema, or Varel), Aevcpava (Luneburg, Lauenburg, Bux-
tehuda, or Lubbethene), TeKe/.ca (Oldenbrook, Elsfleth, or Zetel), Tov-
?u(ppovpdov (Verda, or Dohlbergen), ^Larovravda (Utende), Tevdepiov
(Detern). Their name is still preserved in that of their harbor, Cux-
haven. (Compare Mannert, iii., p. 275, seqq.) . . . c. 35, 36

Chamayi. A German tribe, who originally occupied the tract
which extended northward to the Vech, eastward to the Ems, south-
ward to the Lippe, and westward to the eastern mouth of the Rhine.
At a later period they lived between the Weser and the Harz Mount-
ains, in Eichfeld, and a part of Grubenhagen and Hohenstein. In the
third century they are again found on the Rhine, as members of
the Frank league ; and in the next century they spread themselves
along the Waal. Tacitus has most probably committed a mistake
in placing them in the country of the Bructeri. (Compare Mannert,
iii., p. 151) c. 33, 34

Chasuari. A German tribe, whose settlements are placed by
Ptolemy on the western side of the Weser, between the Haase and
the sources of the Lippe, in Osnaburg and Pa-derbom. They were
a tribe of the Cherusci ; and afterward appear among the Franks,
on the western part of the Lower Rhine, in the dukedom of Gelders.
They were conquered by Tiberius and Germanicus. (Veil. Paterc,
ii , 118; Mannert, iii., p. 179) C 34

224 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Cherusci. The German tribe of the Cherusci must be carefully
distinguished from the league of the Cherusci. As a tribe, their
possessions lay in the Harz Mountains, and on both sides of them,
but chiefly on the south, where the northwest part of the Thuringer
Wald separated them from the Catti. The Sala (Saale) probably
formed their eastern boundary ; so that their territory comprehend-
ed the Duchies of Brunswick and Magdeburg, wTith the Principalities
of Halberstadt, Schwarzburg, Grubenhagen, and Calenberg. The
name Harz is derived by some from that of Cherusci : in the Peu-
tingerian Table they are called Crherstini. (See Ptol., ii., 11 ; Gas.,
B. G., vi., 10 ; Strabo, vii., 1, 3, 4.) Ptolemy places them only on
the south side of the Harz Mountains ; but the expeditions of Ger-
manicus show that they dwelt on the north side also. A wall built
between the Steinhuder See and the Weser separated them from the
Angrivarii (Ann., ii., 19). The Alter probably formed their bound-
ary on the north and east, up to the point where it meets the Leine.
They were at first in alliance with Rome ; and Arminius commanded
a squadron of German cavalry in the Roman army, and so far dis-
tinguished himself that he was made a Roman knight. Afterward,
roused by this leader, the Cherusci joined the Catti and others in
the attack upon Varus ; for a history of which, see Ann., i., 59-63 ;
ii., 9-26. They were afterward defeated by Germanicus (Ann., ii.,
17). Their strength, however, was not much broken ; for the fol-
lowing year they defeated the Marcomanni under Maroboduus, and
were now, through the courage and conduct of Arminius, the first
people in Germany. The Cheruscan league included the Dulgibini,
Ansibarii, Chasuari, Chamavi, Tubantes, and Marsi. These and
other small tribes are frequently called Cherusci. Thus the land
between the sources of the Lippe and the Weser, in all the accounts
of the transactions before the defeat of Varus, is called the land of
the Cherusci. But the power and influence which Arminius had
acquired roused the jealousy of other princes, and he was murdered
by some of his own family. With him fell the greatness of the Che-
rusci. Internal dissensions ruined the whole family of their ancient
princes. In the reign of Claudius they sent to Rome to ask, as king,
Italicus, a descendant of the family of Arminius, who was born at
Rome. Being, however, looked upon as an alien, he was driven
out, but was reinstated by the Langobardi (Ann., xi., 16, 17). Their
league was speedily dissolved ; feuds arose between them and the
neighboring tribes, and a considerable portion of their territory was
wrested from them by the Langobardi, and they were driven from
the west of the Thuringer Wald by the Catti. Ptolemy mentions,

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 225

as towns belonging to them, Moiomov, AovTcra, 'ApyeTna, BucovpSiov,
&c. ; the sites of which can not be determined with any accuracy.

(Compare Mannert, iii., p. 205, seqq.) c. 36

Cimbri. The accounts of the ancients respecting the seats of the
Cimbri, or Cimmerii, abound in uncertainties and contradictions.
Strabo places them on the ocean, by the Elbe ; Mela, in the islands
of the Baltic ; Pliny, to the east of the Elbe, and' on the peninsula
which took its name from them ; Tacitus places them in the same
quarter ; Ptolemy, at the extremity of the Cimbric Chersonese.
But, upon examination, it does not appear that they ever inhabited
these parts. The Greeks first became acquainted with them on the
northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus. They were driven from this
quarter, and disappeared from the knowledge of the Greeks, who
fabled that they dwelt on the shores of the Northern Ocean, in a
land shrouded in perpetual night. Pytheas, who circumnavigated
the greater part of the northwest of Europe, saw a large peninsula,
where the long nights and intense cold in winter seemed to accord
with the poetical descriptions of the land of the Cimmerii, and so
assigned this country as their abode. In this he was followed by
most of the ancient geographers : Strabo sets them down as one
of the tribes with which they were best acquainted ; although in the
next sentence he acknowledges that all beyond the Elbe was totally
unknown to the Greeks (vii., p. 451, Ed. Cas., 294). No mention
is made of the Cimbri in the expeditions of Drusus and Germani-
cus ; and though the fleet of the latter discovered the Cimbric Cher-
sonese of Pytheas, they found no Cimbrians dwelling in it, nor did
it bear a name derived from that people. Ptolemy places them at
the extremity of it, merely to fill up a gap, as he has no other tribe
to fix in this locality. Their real country lay, probably, on the north-
east side of Germany : it was on this side that they invaded Ger-
many, and were opposed by the Boii, at that time the inhabitants of
Bohemia. Bo'iovg tov ''Eptcvvcov 6pv/j.ov olkelv. Tovg de Ki/j,6povg dp-
firjaavrag em tov totvov tovtov airoKpovadevTag vizb rCov Botcjv M tov
"IcTpov, k. t. %. (Strabo, vii., p. 293, edit. Casaub.) Together with
the Teutones they entered Gaul, where they were joined by the
Ambrones. With their combined forces they then invaded Spain,
but were repulsed by the Celtiberi. The Teutones and Ambrones
then made an irruption into Italy, where they were defeated by Ma-
rius (B.C. 102). A part of the Cimbri, who had gone into Helvetia,
were there joined by the Tigurini ; these made another attack upon
Italy, and defeated Catulus ; but were at last routed by Marius (B.C.
101). The remnant of them is said to have settled in Helvetia,

220 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Some of the Boii appear to have accompanied them in their inva-
sion of Italy. Their name is still preserved in the national appel-
lation of the Welsh, Cymry. It is very difficult to decide whether
the Cimbri were a Germanic or a Celtic tribe. The two races were
not carefully distinguished by the Romans : Tacitus called them
Germans ; but the Cymry certainly are not descendants of the Ger-
mans : their language is a Celtic dialect. In the war with Marius
they were led by a Celtic commander, and the description of their
arms points to the same origin. Yet we find them united with the
Teutones. There is a similar difficulty in the case of the Belgse.
For an account of the Cimbri and their expeditions, see Liv., Ep.,
63-68. App'ian, De Rebus Celt, et III c. 37

Daci. A tribe living between the Danube and the Carpathian
Mountains, about the Rivers Tibiscus and Marisus (Teis and Ma-
rosch), in the upper part of Hungary, Transylvania, Moldavia, Wal-
lachia, and Bessarabia. The first expedition of the Emperor Trajan
was against the Daci, headed by their king, Decebalus ; and the war,
which lasted nearly five years, ended in their submission, A.D. 105
(Dio Cass., lxviii., 6, sqq.), to the Roman power. One of their chief
towns, Sarmizegethusa, was afterward called Ulpia Trajani, in
memory of the victory which was gained. In A.D. 250, Dacia was
overrun and conquered by the Goths, to whom it was afterward re-
signed by the Emperor Aurelian. Domitian celebrated his pretended
exploits against the Dacians by assuming the title Dacicus (Juv.,
Sat., vi., 204) c. 1

Danubius. The largest river in Europe except the Rha, or Volga,
called by the Germans Donau, by the Hungarians Buna, and by the
English Danube. Strabo and Pliny make it rise in the chain of
Mons Abnoba, a part of the Black Forest. According to modern ac-
counts, it originates on the eastern declivity of the Black Forest,
about twenty-four miles from the banks of the Rhine. Its course
is calculated to be about one thousand seven hundred and seventy
miles before it enters the Black Sea, and it receives sixty navi-
gable rivers, the largest of which is the CEnus, or Inn, and one
hundred and twenty smaller streams. As regards the etymology
of the name, it may be remarked, that Bayer (Commt. Acad. Petrop.,
vol. ix., p. 375) supposes an early people to have existed, in whose
language a word like Tan, Ton, Don, or Dunai may have signified
" water," from which were gradually derived such names of rivers
as Tanais, Danaperis, Danaster, Danubius, Don, Eridan-us, Rhodan-

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 227

us, &c. It is a curious confirmation, in part, at least, of this hy-
pothesis, that the Ossetes, a Caucasian tribe, have the word Don in
their language as a general term for "water," "river," &c, and
designate all mountain streams by this appellation. (Compare
Lehrberg, Uniersuckungen, &c, Peter sb., p. 400, and Ritter, Vorhalle,
p. 304) c. 1, 29, 41, 42

DecumItes Agri. A name applied to lands conquered by the
Romans, in which, for the sake of security, that no hostile tribe
might dwell close to their borders, they allowed Gauls or Roman
soldiers to settle, who were charged with the payment of a tithe
(decima) to the Romans. The Romans very commonly exacted a
tithe from those who occupied the public lands : the greater part of
Sicily was taxed in this way. (Compare Ann., xiii., 54 ■ Cces., B.
G., vi., 23.) The situation of these lands is variously laid down.
Some authors place them on the banks of the Necker ; others be-
tween the Lahn and the Main; and on the banks of the Danube,
opposite the province of Rastia ; or within the Roman vallum, reach-
ing from Magontiacum to the Danube, near the source of which lay
the territories of the Marcomanni, which the Romans took posses-
sion of after Maroboduus removed to Bohemia. Drusus Germani-
sus, having built a fort on Mount Taunus, seems to have laid the
first foundation of the limes inclosing the Decumates agri, which
was gradually advanced, especially by Trajan and Hadrian, and for-
tified. Though the occupation of these lands depended on the will
of the emperors, towns gradually sprung up in them. There are
still remains of a Roman wall running from Ingolstadt, on the Dan-
ube, past Dinkelsbuhl and CEhringen, to the Main. Toward the end
of the third century these lands were wrested from the Romans by
the Alemanni, whom Julian and Valentinian in vain endeavored to
expel c. 29

Dulgibini. A German tribe, called AovXyovjuvtoi by Ptolemy,
who places them on the eastern bank of the Weser, in the southern
part of Calenberg, and the western half of Grubenhagen. But this
was not the position in which Tacitus knew them. He places them
in the rear of the Chamavi and Angrivarii, in what was once the
territory of the Bructeri ; and their territories, according to this,
would lie between the Ems and the Lippe, where the town of Dul-
gibinum (Dulmen) was situated. They belonged to the Cherusci,
and were apparently driven eastward by the same eruption of the
Cauci as that which expelled the Angrivarii. (Ptol, ii., 11 ; Strab.,
vii., 44) c. 34

228 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Elysii. A German tribe, supposed to have dwelt at (Els, in Si-
lesia . . . . . . . . . . . c. 43

Eudoses. A German tribe, placed by some in Holstein, where
Eutinum, the River Eydora (Eyder), and Euding, took their names
from them. Others make them to have dwelt on the banks of the
River Dosse c. 40

Fenni. The inhabitants of Finnland. (Compare Warnefr., i.,
5) . c. 46

Fosi. A German tribe, whose name is connected with that of the
River Fuse, which flows into the Alter near Zelle. They were an-
nihilated by the Langobardi c. 36

Frisii. A German tribe, divided into the Frisii majores and mi-
nores. The Frisii minores inhabited the tract north of the Insula
Batavorum, comprising Oberyssel, Gelders, Utrecht, and the greater
part of the province of Holland. The Frisii majores dwelt between
the Yssel, the Ems, and the country of the Bructeri in West Fries-
land and Groningen. The Frisiabones, mentioned by Pliny, probably
formed a part of the same race, and seem to have dwelt in the islands
of the Zuyder Zee. From their first acquaintance with the Romans,
they long continued their most zealous friends in this part : they
rendered Drusus the most active service ; and not only supported
Germanicus themselves, by their advice and service, but bought
over the Cauci also. The cause of this friendship is, probably, to
be found in the hostility which existed between them and the Che-
rusci, against whom all these enterprises of the Romans were di-
rected. It was interrupted, however, in consequence of the Ro-
mans building forts in their territories, and attempting to levy tribute.
They rose upon the Romans, massacred the soldiers who were
among them, and destroyed most of their strong-holds. Corbulo,
the Roman general, proceeded against them ; but the jealousy of
Claudius Caesar stopped his conquests, and he was obliged to with-
draw to the left bank of the Rhine. From this time forward the
Romans no more entered their country. In the fourth and fifth cen-
turies we hear of them as members of the Saxon league ; and by
this time they had greatly extended their possessions. On the east,
they reached to the Wescr, and along the coast they held some posts
as far as the Elbe ; on the west, their name appears more than once
in the Batavian Island, on the Meuse and Scheldt, and on the whole
coast of Flanders. They accompanied the Saxons in their invasion

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 229

and conquest of Britain. They were first humbled by Pipin the
elder, who defeated their king, Radbod, and subdued the western
part of their country as far as the eastern mouth of the Rhine. His
successor, Poppo, attempted to recover it, but was repulsed by
Charles Martel. Charlemagne added the eastern part of their king-
dom to his other Saxon conquests. They gained possession of the
Batavian island in the time of the Emperor Julian. They were an-
ciently governed by two princes. Their descendants, who still re-
tain their name, inhabit the small islands on the western coast of
Schleswig. (Ptol, ii., 11. Ann., ii., 24; iv., 72, 73; xi., 18-20;
xiii., 54. Plin., iv., 15, 29, 31) c. 34, 35

Gambrivii. One of the early appellations of the Germanic race,
according to some authorities referred to by Tacitus (Germ., c. 2).
Various etymologies have been assigned for the name, but all
equally unsatisfactory. Wachter deduces it from gam ("a man")
and brig (" a bridge") ; Longolius, from gam, and brack (" a marshy
spot") c. 2

Germani. The Germans, the inhabitants of Germania. This
word Germania was employed by the Romans to designate a coun-
try of much greater extent than modern Germany. They included
under this name all the nations of Europe east of the Rhine and
north of the Danube, bounded on the north by the German Ocean
and the Baltic, including Denmark and the neighboring islands, and
on the east by the Sarmatians and Dacians. It is difficult, however,
to ascertain how far Germany stretched to the east. According to
Strabo, Germanic tribes dwelt nearly as far as the mouths of the
Borysthenes (Dnieper). Sometimes Germany proper was called
Germania Transrhenana, to distinguish it from the tract lying be-
tween the Rhine and Scheldt, which was called Germania Cisrhe-
nana, after it had been inhabited by some German tribes, which had
crossed the Rhine, or had been brought over by Agrippa and Tibe-
rius. The latter was also divided into Germania Superior, or Prima,
extending along the Rhine from Bingium, beyond Argentoratum ;
and Germania Inferior, or Secunda, reaching from Bingium to the
sea. (Plin., iv., 17 ; Bio Cass., liii., 12.)

1 . Origin of the Germanic Nations.

The origin of the Germanic nations is involved in uncertainty.
The inhabitants of the beautiful regions of Italy, who had never
known a rougher country, could hardly believe that any nation had

230 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

deserted its native soil to dwell in the forests of Germany, where
severe cold prevailed for the greater part of the year, and where,
even in summer, impenetrable wroods prevented the genial rays of
the sun from reaching the ground. They thought that the Germans
must have lived there from the beginning, and therefore called them
indigence, or natives of the soil. ( Germ., 2. ) Modern inquiries, how-
ever, have traced the descent of the Germanic race from the inhab-
itants of Asia ; since it is now indisputably established that the Teu-
tonic dialects belong to one great family with the Latin, the Greek,
the Sanscrit, and the other languages of the Indo-European chain.
Von Hammer calls the Germans a Bactriano-Median nation. He
makes the name Germani, or Sermaui, in its primitive import, to have
meant those who followed the worship of Buddha ; and hence the
Germans, according to him, are that ancient and primitive race who
came down from the mountains of Upper Asia, the cradle of the hu-
man species, and spreading themselves over the low country more
to the south, gave origin to the Persian and other early nations.
Hence the name Dschermania applied in early times to all that tract
of country which lay to the north of the Oxus. The land of Erman,
therefore, which wras situate beyond this river, and which corre-
sponds to the modern Chorasin, is made by Von Hammer the native
home of the Germanic race, and the Germans themselves are, as
he informs us, called Dschermani, their primitive name, by the Ori-
ental writers down to the fourteenth century. (Wien. Jahrb., vol.
ii., p. 319. Compare vol. ix., p. 39.) Another remarkable circum-
stance is, that, besides the name referred to, that of the modern
Prussians may be found under its primitive form in the Persian
tongue. We have there the term Pruschan, or Peruschan, in the
sense of " a people." In Meninski (i., p. 533), we have Berussan
and Beruschan, in the sense of " communitas ejusdem religionis ,*"
while in Ferghengi Schuuri, Peruschan, or Poruschan, more than once
occurs (vol. i., B., 182, &c). Even the name Sachsen, or Sassen
(Saxons), is to be found in the Persian tongue under the form Sassan,
as indicating not only the last dynasty of the Persian Empire (the
Sassanides), but also those acquainted with the doctrines of the Des-
satin, the old Persian dialect of which is far more nearly related to
the Gothic than the modern Persian to the German. In the Orient-
al histories, moreover, mention is made of the dynasty of the sons
of Boia, in whom we may easily recognize the progenitors of the
Boii ; while traces of the name of the Catti may be found in that of
Kat, in Chorasin. (Ferg. Schuuri, B., 231.) Even as early as the
time of Herodotus, the name of the Tepudvtoi appears among the an-

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 231

cient Persian tribes {Herod., i., 125), while the analogies between the
Persian and German are so striking as to have excited the attention
of every intelligent scholar. And, besides all this, an ancient Geor-
gian MS. of laws, not long since brought to light, proves con-
clusively that the Georgian nation had among them ordeals precisely
similar to those of the early Germans, and also the same judicial
forms of proceeding, and the same system of satisfactions to be
paid in cases of homicide, according to the rank of the party slain.
{Annal. de Legislat. et de Jurispr., iy. 40, Paris, 1829. Compare, on
the whole subject, Kruse's Archiv der Germanischen Vdlkerstdmme,
ii., p. 124, seqq.) If these premises be correct, the commonly re-
ceived etymology of the name Germani, which makes it equivalent
to " war-men," or " warriors," falls, of course, to the ground. (Con-
sult notes on chapter ii.) It may not be amiss, however, after
having stated what appears to be the most probable view of the
subject, to give a few other etymologies for the name Germani, each
of which has its advocates. Thus, Althamer makes Germanus
equivalent to " homo prorsus virilis," and the same, in fact, as Ala-
man, i. e., Ganz-Mann. Wackernagel, on the other hand, explains
Germanus by G'ermanus, i. e., Volksgenosse. Luden thinks that the
term Germania is nothing more than the German Wehrmannei, and
that there were several such Germania, or " confederacies" (Eidsge-
nosse?ischaften), such as those of the Cherusci, the Catti, the Cauci,
&c. ; and hence the union of all of these would form what he terms
%i Gesammtgermanien." (Gesch. der Deutschen, i., p. 163.) And,
finally, the name Germani is supposed by some to be derived from
ger, which, according to them, appears in the French guerre, " war,"
and man. (Compare the etymological remarks under the article
Teutones.)

2. Geographical Acquaintance with Ancient Germany.

Our information concerning the geography of ancient Germany is
very scanty and uncertain. The Greek and Roman writers, from
whom our knowledge of it is derived, knew very little about it them-
selves. A knowledge of the German Ocean, and the northern parts
of Europe, had been acquired, first by the Phoenicians and Cartha-
ginians, who procured tin from the Cassiterides or from Britain, and
amber from the shores of the Baltic (see c. 45) ; and, in the year
B C. 400, by Himilco the Carthaginian, whose voyage has been de-
scribed by the poet Avienus (Plin., ii., 67) ; in B.C. 330, by Hecatseus
and Philemon (Plin., iv., 13, or 27) ; and about the same time, by
Ephorus and Clitarchus (Strab., vii., 2, 1, p. 293) ; by Timaeus, Xen-

232 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

option of Lampsacus, Sotacus, Nicias, Xenocrates, Mithradates, and
especially Pytheas of Massilia, who, in the year B.C. 320, sailed to
Thule, and thence into the Baltic. {Strab., i., 4; ii., 3, 4; hi., 2 ;
iv., 4, 5. Plin., iv., 16, or 27, 30 ; xxxvii., 2, or 11.) The knowl-
edge which the Romans possessed of Germany and the western
parts of Europe was derived principally from the expeditions of
Caesar, Drusus Germanicus, Germanicus, and Ahenobarbus. Dru-
sus Germanicus, the brother of Tiberius, made four expeditions into
Germany, and dug the canal between the Rhine and the Chisala
( Yssel). He was the first who navigated the German Ocean, but
did not advance further than the mouth of the Amisia {Ems), in the
territory of the Cauci. Germanicus, the son of Drusus (A.D. 14-
16), made four expeditions into Germany, and advanced still further ;
he was shipwrecked on the territory of the Frisii {Ann., i., 49-52,
55-59, 60-71 ; ii., 5-26, 41-46). L. Domitius Ahenobarbus crossed
the Elbe, and penetrated further into Germany than any of his pred-
ecessors. {Ann., i., 63 ; iv., 44. Suet, Ner., iv.) Tiberius ad-
vanced to the Arctic Sea {Ann., ii., 26, 47 ; xii., 39. Bio., Iv., 6, 8,
28 ; lvi., 25. Suet, Tib., 9, 17, 18, 20. Veil., ii., 97, 104-110, 120.)
This expedition of Tiberius, however, Strabo (vii., 1, p. 291) and
Tacitus himself (c. 34) attribute to Drusus Germanicus. On the
south side of Germany the Romans made no conquests beyond the
Danube ; but they obtained some geographical knowledge through
the journeys of the traders who procured amber from the shores of
the Baltic, and from their wars with the Daci, Marcomanni, and
other tribes on this frontier. Strabo wrote in the age of Tiberius,
when the Romans possessed a more accurate knowledge of Germany
than at any other time, through the expeditions of which we have
just spoken. After this period the Romans were almost entirely
shut out of Germany. Strabo, however, is exceedingly careless.
He did not read even Caesar's Gallic war with sufficient attention to
understand it, and confuses almost every thing which he extracts
from the accounts brought home by Pytheas. Our difficulties are,
moreover, increased by the inaccuracy of the text. Pomponius
Mela is worth nothing. Pliny, likewise, was very careless, as we
see, even in what he says of Italy ; we can not, therefore, look for
much accuracy in his account of Germany. His work is principal-
ly valuable for the proper names. The imperfect character of the
geographical knowledge which Tacitus possessed of Germany is
manifest from his work upon the subject. Ptolemy has ventured
to give a map of Germany, and to lay down the latitudes and longi-
tudes of a number of towns and mouths of rivers. The greater part

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 233

of these he never visited himself; and who, in that age, could have
furnished him with the requisite information'? Indeed, his map
bears but a faint resemblance to the actual shape and features of
Germany ; and, in the majority of instances, it can with difficulty be
determined whether the towns he mentioned existed at all. There
is this additional disadvantage in his book, that he defines positions
by numbers, which, of all things, are the most liable to alteration
through the mistakes of the transcribers. One of the most valua-
ble geographical monuments of antiquity, Antoninus's Itinerary,
compiled under the direction of J. Caesar and Antony or Augustus,
is available only for a few roads on the frontier. The Peutingerian
Table is frequently of use in making maps ; since, though the
countries are excessively distorted, the distances between the towns
laid down on it are given : but it is of scarcely any service in the
case of Germany. Inscriptions and coins, again, which afford some
of the best means of defining the situations of places, are of rare
occurrence in Germany. But, in addition to all these difficulties and
disadvantages, the wandering and unsettled character of the Ger-
mans themselves renders it totally impossible to lay down a map
which should represent the relative positions of the tribes at any
one period, or for any length of time, though we can generally
determine the position which individual tribes occupied at some
time or other. This is seen from the wide discrepancies between
Tacitus and his contemporaries, and Ptolemy, and from such
glimpses as history affords us of the migrations of several of the
tribes . . . . . . . c. 2, 16, 27, 28, 30, 31, &c.

Gothini. A German tribe, who are supposed by some to have
lived in Cracow, or on the banks of the Marus (March), as it is said
that the Quadi imposed a tribute upon them ; and Ptolemy (ii., 11)
mentions towns here having a Celtic name and origin, adding v<p
ovc (rovg Kovddovg) ra cLdrjpupvxda (either where are the modern
Feldsburg, Eisgrub, and Niclasburg, not far from Cracoiv, on the
western bank of the Vistula, or at Iglaiva, Oslawa, Schwarza, Zwil-
tawa, between Bohemia and Moravia), Kal tj Aovva v?^rj (Manhart).
Others place the Gothini on the south of the Danube, where there
are several iron mines in Styria c. 43

Gotones. The name Gotones is synonymous with that of TvOoveg
(PtoL), or Goths. They were frequently erroneously confounded
with the Getae and Scythians. Pytheas is the first who mentions
them, when they lived on the right bank of the Vistula, and on the
coast of the Baltic, on the borders of Silesia and Poland, and after-
ward a part of them in Scandinavia, where their name appears in

234 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Gothland, Gothenburg, Codanus Sinus, and Gedanum. Pliny and
Tacitus do not make them reach to the sea. A portion of them
were members of the Marcomannie league (Ann., ii. , 62). They first
appear under the name of Goths in the time of Caracalla. Some-
where about the middle of the second century, they seem to have
wandered from the Vistula to the neighborhood of the Dnieper and
Dniester, and incessantly harassed the province of Dacia. Under
Gallienus they devastated Thrace and Macedonia ; and a portion
of them penetrated into Asia Minor, and burned the temple of Diana
at Ephesus. About this period they spread eastward along the
northern coast of the Euxine. In the year 269, they were defeated
by £laudius in Mcesia. Shortly afterward Aurelian abandoned Da-
cia to them ; and they were now divided into Ostro- Goths, or East-
Goths, inhabiting the shores of the Euxine, and Visi-Goths, or West-
Goths, who occupied Dacia. The Borysthenes formed the boundary
of the two divisions. About the year 375, the Huns, under Attila,
drove the Ostrogoths upon their western neighbors, who retired
before them, and were allowed by the Emperor Valens to settle in
Mcesia. Here disputes arose between them and the Romans, and
Valens was killed in attempting to oppose them. In the reign of
Honorius, Alaric, at the head of the Visigoths, invaded Italy, but
was defeated by Stilicho. He soon returned, however, and made
himself master of Rome. His successor, Ataulph, made peace with
the Romans, and withdrew to the south of Gaul, from which the
Visigoths afterward crossed to Spain, where they maintained their
ground till they were conquered by the Moors. After the death of
Attila, the Ostrogoths emancipated themselves from the dominion
of the Huns ; and, under Theodoric, defeated Odoacer and subdued
Italy (A.D. 489). But their dominion here was overthrown by Nar-
ses, the general of Justinian, in 554, and the remnant of their race
became amalgamated with the other inhabitants of Italy.

Hellusii. A German tribe dwelling in the extreme north, of
whom nothing certain is known. (Consult notes on Germania,
c. 46) c. 46

Helvecones. A German tribe, who dwelt between Ukermark
and Priegnitz. In Ptolemy they are called Ailovaiuvec (ed. Erasm.),
or 'Ehovuvec (ed. Mirand.) c. 43

Hercynia Silva. This was the general name of the large mount-
ain chain which separates the interior of Germany from the tracts
9 Jjacent to the Danube ; commencing with the Black Forest, run-

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 235

nmg northward till it crosses the Main, then eastward, comprising
what are now called the Spessart Wald and Franken Wald, through
Bohemia and the north of Hungary. (Cces., B. G., vi., 25 ; Strabot
vii., p. 207, 290, 292 ; Plin., xvi., 2 ; Ptol., ii., 11.) These writers,
however, do not all quite agree in their description. Ptolemy as-
signs much narrower limits to the name, and applies it to the ridge
between the Gabretan Forest and the Sarmatian Mountains, which
unite the Carpathian and Sudetan Mountains. Caesar's account of
it was derived from report. At a later period, the Romans, in their
wars with Maroboduus, whose possessions lay among the Bohmer
Wald Mountains, became personally acquainted with it. Different
names were afterward given to the several subdivisions of this
chain. Silva Marciana was the Schwarz Wald, or Black Forest :
this name became known to the Romans in their war with the Al-
lemanni ; it is found in the Peutingerian Table. The Helvetii had
inhabited it in former times, but were expelled by the wandering
Suevi ; Ptolemy called it ttjv fEAon??rnc;v epn/iov. The name Ab-
noba, which belongs to the ridge in which the Danube rises, was
given by Ptolemy to a chain of mountains which he makes to run
parallel to the Rhine, from the Main to the source of the Amisia
(Ems), which, according to him, rises in it. From Fichtelberg east-
ward, through Bohemia to Moravia, where it meets with the Her-
cynian chain, runs a ridge called by Ptolemy Mount Sudeta. South
of this, following what is now called the Bohmer Wald, but extend-
ing to a greater breadth toward the north, lay the Gabretan Forest
{fi YdSpnra v\rf). On each side of the River March lay the Forest
of Luna. The most eastern range, extending from the Danube,
where it turns southward, to the Carpathian Mountains, is called by
Ptolemy the Sarmatic Mountains. These are the mountains and
forests which are frequently, by the Roman writers, comprehended
under the name of the Hercynian Forest . . . . c. 28

Hercynius Saltus. The same as Hercynia Silva, which see.

Herminones. Consult notes on chap. ii.

Hermunduri. (Penult doubtful, as both ''Epfiovdopot, and 'Epfiov-
dovpoi occur. The short quantity, however, is to be preferred.) A
German tribe, who occupied what is now Saxony and Anhalt, be-
tween the Sala (Francorum) and the Albis. , (Flumen Alois, qui
Semnonum Hermundurorumque fines prceterfluit. Veil., ii., 106.)
Toward the west they bordered on the Cherusci and the Thuringer
Wald, and the Sala {Ann., xiii., 57) divided them from the Catti.
From Ann., xii., 30, we gather, that on the east they dwelt neai
the Quadi, whose territories lay in Moravia and Upper Hungary,

236 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

with whom, in conjunction with the Lygii, whose possessions were
situated in the western part of the Carpathian Mountains, they
waged war. Accordingly, the Hermunduri would live about the
sources of the Elbe, in the north of Bohemia. Their name is not
mentioned by Ptolemy ; and as we have not the least hint in his-
tory that they were annihilated in war, it is probable that the Tau~
riochamce, whom he places in their country, were the same people
under another name. In the fifth century they appear in the same
district, under the name of Thuringi. In the name Hermunduri,
Hermun is probably not an essential part, but merely marks that
they belong to the Herminones. Duri seems to be their real name ;
and this root appears, with a German ending, in Thur-ingi. A di-
vision of the Hermunduri dwelt on the banks of the Danube, in the
eastern part of Franconia. From a fragment of Dio Cassius, we
learn that Domitius Ahenobarbus (A.D. 2) assigned them this abode
when wandering in search of new settlements. The Turoni, on
the northern side of the Main, mentioned by Ptolemy, are probably
a branch of the same people. The towns mentioned by Ptolemy
as belonging to them are, AoKopcrov (Lohr), Zeyodowov (Wurce-
hurg), Anovova (Schweinfurth, or Detwang), Btpytov (Bamberg, or
Berching), Mevoayada (Baruth), KavrtoiScg (Windsheme), Bl6aKov
(Suabach) c. 41, 42

Ing^evones. Consult notes on chap, ii c. 2

Ist^evones. Consult notes on chap, ii c. 2

Langobardi. A German tribe, who frequently changed their set-
tlements. At first they dwelt in the neighborhood of the Lower
Elbe, in the tract called Bardengau, between Magdeburg, Lilneburg,
and Hamburg, where the town of Bardwick stands, and in which
they were subdued by Tiberius (PtoL, ii., 11 ; Veil, ii., 106), who
moved them beyond the Elbe. They then advanced more into the
interior of the country, to the neighborhood of the Semnones ; and,
together with these, revolted from Maroboduus, under whose domin-
ion they then were, to Arminius (Ann., ii., 45, 46 ; xi., 17), and as-
sisted Italicus, the banished king of the Cherusci (Ann., xi., 16, 17).
But in the Marcomannic war, having crossed the Danube, they
were defeated by Vindex and Candidus. Afterward, on the decline
of the power of the Cherusci, they extended themselves to the
Rhine ; and here they are placed by Ptolemy, between the Bructeri

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 237

and Tencteri. They did not, however, remain here long ; the Sax-
on league drove them back to the Elbe. In the fifth century they
took possession of part of Hungary, on the northern bank of the
Danube, and in the sixth century, under the guidance of Audoinus,
they crossed this river and established themselves in Pannonia.
Then, at the invitation of Narses, and led by Alboinus across the
Alps (A.D. 568), they settled in Lombardy, which Charlemagne
subdued (A.D. 774), having taken Desiderius, the last king. Tac-
itus has here omitted the Burgundiones, as in his time they were
unknown to the Romans. They afterward, with the Langobardi,
settled upon the Decumales agri. Thence they made an irrup-
tion into Gaul, and seized upon the lands which still bear their
name c. 40

Lemovii. A German tribe, who seem to have dwelt near the
town and River Leba. They are mentioned by no other writer but
Tacitus c. 43

Lygii. A German tribe, whose territory extended from the
sources of the River Vistula to about the middle of its course. To
the south they bordered on the Carpathian Mountains, to the west
on the Riesengebirge, and to the north on the Burgundii ; including
the southern part of Silesia, the western part of Galicia, and some
parts of Poland west of the. Vistula. Some of them joined the Mar-
comanni and Hermunduri against the Quadi ; others, during the
reign of Probus, under the guidance of their king, Semno, with the
Burgundii and Vandals, advanced as far as the Rhine against the
Romans. After this period their name disappears {Ann., xii., 29,
30 ; Dio, lxvii., 5). Some identify them with the Ligues, or Ligu-
rians, in Gaul ; and suppose that, having been conquered by the
Gauls, they migrated first into Italy, and then into Germany . c. 43

Manimi. A German tribe, supposed to have lived at the mouth
of the Neissc. It is impossible, however, to determine their pre-
cise position c. 43

Marcomanni. A German tribe, of whom we first hear in the
army of Ariovistus, when he was at war with Caesar and the Hel-
vetians (Cces., B. G., i., 51), on the Rhine ; then between the Main
and the Neckar. After Caesar's death they dwelt between the Dan-
ube and the Drave, in Austria and Hungary, till the Romans con-
quered Pannonia and the Noric Alps, when they withdrew to the
opposite side of the river, into the country formerly occupied by the
Boii, whom they expelled. This they did under the guidance of

238 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Maroboduus, who, in his youth, had come to Rome and been edu-
cated at the court of Augustus. He raised his people to a high
pitch of prosperity, and formed a league including a great number
of the Suevic tribes, of which the Langobardi and Semnones were
the most northerly. His power had become formidable to Rome,
and Tiberius prepared to invade his dominions. But a sudden in-
surrection of the Pannonian and Dalmatian tribes compelled Tibe-
rius to conclude a treaty with him (Veil., ii., 108-110 ; Ann., ii., 16).
The Langobardi and Semnones having withdrawn from Marobo-
duus, and attached themselves to Arminius, the chief of the Che-
rusci, a war ensued between them. Inguiomerus, the uncle of Ar-
minius, came over to Maroboduus, who was defeated, and compell-
ed to retire among the Marcomanni, and apply to Rome for assist-
ance {Ann., ii., 44-46). It appears that a peace was then concluded
between them. Maroboduus was soon after expelled by Catualda,
and forced to take refuge in Italy : he lived there, at Ravenna, for
eighteen years. Catualda was driven out by the Hermunduri, and
also fled to Tiberius for protection. The followers of these two
princes were settled beyond the Danube, between the Morava and
Gran, and Vannius, from the tribe of the Quadi, was appointed as
their king (Ann., ii., 62, 63 ; xii., 29, 30 ; Hist., hi., 5). Peace was
maintained between the Romans and the tribes along the Danube
till the reign of Domitian, when hostilities broke out, and continued
almost uninterruptedly till the destruction of the Roman Empire
(Dio, lxvii., 7 ; Plin., Pan., viii., 12). For an account of the great
Marcomannic war, in the reign of M. Aurelius, see Dio, lxviii., 9 ;
lxxi., 3, 8-15, 20-33 ; lxxii., 2. After the death of Attila, in whose
army they served, they are not any more heard of. Ptolemy men-
tions as their cities, MapoSovdov (Budweis), OvoSlov (either Marback
or Ispern), 'A6i?>ovvov (Zlabings), ^Yedivrovlov (Prague), NofitOTTJpiov
(either Niemes or Nimptsch), Kohaynopov (either Zittavia or Collo-

chau) c. 42, 43

Mar si. A German tribe, supposed to have lived at first in the
neighborhood of the Albis (Elbe) and Visurgis ( Weser) ; then be-
tween the Rhine and the Chisala (Yssel), from Paderborn to the
Visurgis ; and at length, when driven out by Drusus, to have set-
tled in the lands of the Bructeri and Sigambri, between the Amisia
(Ems) and Luppia (Lippe) : but from Ann., i., 45-50, 56 ; ii., 6, 7,
25, 26, it has been conjectured that their settlements are to be
looked for in the neighborhood of the River Logana (Lahn). The
Marsigni (c. 43) are, perhaps, the same race, or their descend-
ants c. %

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 239

Marsigni. A German tribe, who seem to have lived about War-
saw. They are, perhaps, the same race with the Marsi (c. 2), or
else their descendants c. 43

Mattiaci. A German tribe, probably a branch of the Catti, who,
like the Batavi, dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, in Wetterau
and Hesse Darmstadt, the tract possessed by the Ubii before they
crossed the Rhine, between the Moenus (Main) and Logana (Lahn).
They are first mentioned by Tacitus (Ann., xi., 20) ; for Strabo and
Dio Cassius speak of the Catti as inhabiting this region. In the
war of the Batavi, together with the Usipii and Catti, they besieged
Magontiacum (Mayence). After their territories were occupied by
the Alemanni, their name was almost extinguished. Their capital
was Mattium, the site of which is not well determined, and is vari-
ously placed at Maden, Altwetter, and Matten, or Metz. The first
is the most likely. Aquae Mattiaeae ( Wisbaderi) was another of their
towns c. 29

Naharvali. A German tribe, dwelling between the Warta and
the Vistula, near Petricau c. 43

Narisci. A German tribe, called Varisti (Ovapcaroi) by Ptolemy,
and Nariscae (SapiGtcai) by Dio Cassius. They dwelt at the foot of
the Fichtelgebirge C. 42

Nemetes. (The quantity of the penult is doubtful. The long
quantity, however, is preferable, in accordance with the Greek Ne-
{irjTeg.) A tribe of German origin in Northern Gaul, in the division
called Germania Superior, or Prima, lying along the banks of the
Rhine, and between the Vangiones and Triboci. Their chief city
was Noviomagus, afterward called Augusta Nemetum, and now
Speier c. 28

Nervii. A warlike people of Belgic Gaul, wThose country lay be-
tween the Mosa (Meuse), Scaldis (Scheld), and Sabis (Sambre).
Their original capital was Bagacum, now Bavay ; but afterward
Camaracum (Cambray) and Turn acum (Tour nay) became their chief
cities toward the end of the fourth century . . . . c. 28

Noricum. A province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the
north by the Danube, on the west by Vindelicia and Raetia, on the
east by Pannonia, and on the south by Illyricum and Gallia Cisal-
pina. It was separatedjfrom Vindelicia by the River CEnus (Inn),
and from Gallia Cisalpina by the Alpes Carnicae or Juliae, but it is
difficult to determine the boundaries between Noricum and Panno-
nia, as they differed at various times. Under the later times of the

*240 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Roman Empire, Mount Cetius and part of the River Murius (Mur)
appear to have formed the boundaries. Noricum would thus cor-
respond to the modern Styria, Carinthia, and Salzburg, and to part
of Austria and Bavaria. The iron of Noricum was much in request
among the Romans (Plin., xxxiv., 41) ; and, according to Polybius
(quoted by Strabo, iv., p. 208), gold was formerly found in this prov-
ince in great abundance . c. 5

Nuithones. A German tribe, who appear to have dwelt some-
where in Holstein c. 40

Osi. A German tribe, supposed to have dwelt in Austria, below
the mouth of the Anisia, or Enns c. 28, 43

Oxiones. A German tribe, in the extreme north, named by Tac-
itus in connection with the Hellusii, and of whom nothing certain
is known c. 49

Pannonia. A province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the
north and east by the Danube, on the south by Illyricum and Moesia,
and on the west by Noricum. It corresponded to Sclavonia, parts
of Hungary, Lower Austria, Styria, Croatia, and to those parts of
Turkish Croatia, Bosnia, and Servia, which immediately touch upon
the Save. Pannonia was regarded as one of the most important
provinces of the empire, on account of its bordering on the power-
ful nations of the Quadi and Iazyges c. 1

Peucini. The Peucini, or Bastarnae, occupied the country from
the sources of the Vistula to the Carpathian Mountains, which, from
them, were called the Bastarnic Alps, and dwelt on the left bank of
the Danube up to its mouth, in Transylvania, Galicia, Hungary,
Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia. They are elapsed among the
Sarmatians by Ptolemy and Dio, among the Germans by Pliny and
Strabo, who says that a part of them were called Peucini, on ac-
count of their living in the island of Peuce, off the mouth of the
Danube (vii., 2, 17). Others derive the name from Mount Peuce,
situated above Dacia, near which, according to Ptolemy, they dwelt.
Livy (xl., 47 ; xliv., 26), Diodorus, and Polybius (xxvi., 9), who had
not learned the distinction between the Celts and Germans, class
them among the former. They first appear in history B.C. 179,
serving under Perseus ; then as allies of Mithradates ; afterward as
members of the Marcomannic league, and in connection with the
Goths, with whom they seem to have coalesced, unless, as some

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 241

have supposed, they were the originators of the Frank league. Pro-
bus is reported to have settled one hundred thousand of them in
Thrace. Plutarch {Mm. PaulL, 12) says: "Baordpvai avdpeg ov
yeupyelv eldoreg, ov nhelv, ovk and 7TOifivlo)v (fiv vefiovrec, aTiV &v §p-
yov Kal fj.iav texvjjv f^eXeTcJvreg del [idxeoOat, Kal Kparetv rdv avTiraT-
To/uivuv. "Avdpec vipTjhol fiev to. cupara, -d-av/xaarol 6s Tag fie^rac,
ueydXavxot 6e Kal Xafinpol ralg Kara t&v Trole/Ltiov direclalc, -ftdpaog
izapearrjaav Tolq M.afced6cri Kal dot-av, 6g rtiv 'Pu/iaiov ovx vnofievovv-
tqv, dTiV eKnTiayrjaofihcov rrjv oipcv avrrjv Kal ttjv k'lvtjglv, ek^vXov
ovoav Kal dvgitpoQcmTov" . . . . . . . c. 46

Quadi. The Romans first became acquainted with this powerful
German tribe after the conquest of Pannonia. They always appear
in the closest connection with the Mareomanni. Their most an-
cient settlements on the Danube reached eastward to the Tibiscus,
or Teis, where they bordered on the Getas ; but partly in conse-
quence of the irruption of the Iazyges, partly through the influence
of Maroboduus, they withdrew westward. The name Quadi was
given to the mixed tribe composed of the followers of Maroboduus
and Catualda, settled by the Romans between the Marus and the
Cusus. Toward the north they reached to the Carpathian Mount-
ains, beyond which dwelt the Lygii. Their western limits can not
be determined with accuracy. The original tribe of the Quadi
seems to have extended westward beyond the Morava, and to have
united with their brethren on the east. They carried on wars with
M. Aurelius, Commodus, Caracalla, Gallienus, Aurelian, Constan-
tius, Julian, and Valentinian I., till the fifth century, when they ap-
pear to have coalesced with other nations. {Dio Cass., lxxi., 8,
seqq. ; lxxii., 2 ; lxxvii., 20.) Their cities mentioned by Ptolemy
are, QpovpyioaTig, Koptdopycc, MedoaMvtov, ToSodovvov, $i?i7]Kia,
Me?u66ovvov, the sites of which can not be determined with any
accuracy, 'Avdovercov (Dioszeg), YLelfiavria {Szomolyan), "AvaBov
(Abany), ^tyyovrj (Treutsin), "ESovpov {Berun)y 'ApoUova (Felsi),
Hapievva (Varin), and ^erovia {Sydzina) . . . c. 42, 43

Rjetia appears properly to have comprehended the whole coun-
try between the north of Italy and the Danube, and, consequently,
to have included Vindelicia. Dio Cassius (liv., 22), in his account
of the conquest of the Raeti and Vindelici by Drusus and Tiberius,
only mentions the Rasti. Strabo often speaks of them (iv., p. 193,

242 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

206 ; vii., p. 449) as if they were only one people ; and Tacitus, in
several passages, appears to include Vindelicia in the province of
Reetia. In the time of Augustus, however, these two countries
formed two separate provinces, of which Raetia was bounded on the
west by the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the south by Gal-
lia Cisalpina, and on the north by Vindelicia, from which it was
separated by the Lacus Brigantinus, or Lake of Constance, and the
River (Enus, or Inn. It included the greater part of the Tyrol and
the eastern cantons of Switzerland. The only town of importance
in Rsetia was Tridentum (Trent), on the Athesis, the capital of the
Tridentini ' . . . c. 3, 41

R^eti. Vid. R^ETIA.

Reudigni. A German tribe, whose position is quite uncertain.
They probably lived near Lauenberg c. 40

Rhenus. The Rhine, rising in the Lepontine Alps, a little to the
east of Mount St. Gothard, in the country of the Grisons. Its whole
course is nine hundred miles, of which six hundred and thirty are
navigable from Basilia (Basle) to the sea. The Rhine formed the
boundary between Germany proper and Gallia . . c. 1, &c.

Rugii. A German tribe, who lived between the Viadrus (Oder)
and Vistula. . The island of Rugen probably took its name from
them. After the death of Attila, they took possession of part of
Austria, Moravia, and Upper Hungary, but in 480 were either de-
stroyed or dispersed by Odoacer c. 43

Sarmat^s. The European Sarmatians, the Slavonians of a more
recent age, were but little known to the Romans. They are sup-
posed to have occupied Poland, Lithuania, the eastern part of Prus-
sia, Curonia, Livonia, Russia, the lesser Tartary, and the Taurio
Chersonese c. 1, 17, 43, 46

Semnones. (The penult is doubtful. Ptolemy has 2 efivovec, and
Strabo 2 e/Livovec. The short quantity appears more in accordance
with analogy.) A branch of the Suevic nation, who lived between
the Albis (Elbe) and Viadrus (Oder), inhabiting the tract which com-
prises what is now Mecklenburg and Brandenburg, with part of Sax-
ony, Bohemia, Lusatia, Silesia, and Poland. They belonged to the
kingdom of Maroboduus. The Romans first came in contact with
them in the expeditions of Tiberius (Veil., ii., 106, 107) ; and the
wars against Arminius, to whom, together with the Langobardi,
they went over from Maroboduus (Ann., ii., 45, 46 ; Veil, ii., 106,
107) ; then in the time of Domitian, when a king of theirs, Ma-

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 243

syus, whom they had driven out, came to Rome. (JDio Cass., lxvii.,
5) ! . c. 39

Sitones. Consult notes on Germ., e. 45 . . . . c. 45

Suardones. A German tribe, who seem to have lived near Lu-
bcck, by the River Schwartau c. 40

Suevi. A powerful German tribe, who, according to Tacitus,
possessed all the land from the banks of the Danube northward to
the Baltic Sea, between the Elbe and the Vistula. Through the
midst of their territories stretched a chain of mountains, the name
of which we do not learn from Tacitus (c. 43) ; but which, from his
description, appears to be identical with the Asciburgian range of
Ptolemy, and the modern Riesengebirge. Caesar makes their pos-
sessions extend to the Rhine, along the north bank of the Mcenus,
or Main. The reason of this was probably owing to the fact, that
on the north side of the Main an army of Suevi had come to the
aid of Ariovistus, which afterward retired (Cces., B. G., i., 37, 54 ;
iv., 1-3). The Catti were the tribe to which Caesar gave the name
of Suevi. Strabo even speaks of Suevi on the Rhine, when all
the tribes in that quarter had already become known through the
expeditions of the Romans (Annal, i., 44; ii., 26, 44. Agr., 28.
Ptol.y ii., 11). The different nations into which the Suevi were di-
vided are enumerated by Tacitus (c. 38-45). After the time of
Tacitus, the name seeras to have been nearly lost. It appears only
once in the war with the Marcomanni, although that was carried on
against tribes who once bore the name. After this, it only occurs
twice. Ptolemy gives it as a surname to the Langobardi ; and in
the fourth century appeared a people bearing the name, who dwelt
in the country called from them Suabia. The name probably oc-
curs, though somewhat disguised, in that of the Viadrus, which
seems originally to have begun with an s : the mouth still bears the
name of Swinemund. Instances of the loss of the letter s, and the
interchange of v and d, are seen in fjdvc , sweet, suavts, suadeo (orig-
inally to sweeten), sop-or, vnvoc, clavis, claudo, &c. Ptolemy speaks
of a river Suevus between the Oder and the Elbe ; but there is no
river there of a magnitude approaching to that which he assigns to
the Suevus. Perhaps it was a name of the Oder, which he applied
to another river. Suiones appears to be only a variation of the name
Suevi.

Suiones. A German tribe, inhabiting the south of Sweden, which
was supposed by the ancients to be an island . . . c. 44

244 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

Tencteri. A German tribe. Vid. Usipii.

Teutones, or Teutoni. The name of the Teutones was made
known to the ancients by Pytheas of Massilia (Marseilles), who, in
the age of Alexander the Great, about 320 B.C., discovered a nation
of that name in the Chersonesus Cimbrica, and on the adjacent
islands, or in the present countries of Holstein, Schlesivig, Denmark,
and perhaps, also, in the southern extremity of Sweden. It seems
that they had long been settled there, for they lived in houses, and
were acquainted with agriculture and commerce. Other traces of
the name appear later. Among the Celtic tribes which invaded
Greece and besieged Delphi, under the second Brennus (B.C. 278),
there was a people called Teutobodiaci, who afterward passed the
Hellespont, and settled with the Celts in Galatia, in Asia Minor.
About a hundred and sixty years later, the Romans were attacked
by the Cimbri and Teutones, who came from the same country,
where they had been seen by Pytheas. When the Romans first
heard the name of the Teutones, they thought that they were a single
tribe. They did not know that it was also the general and ethno-
graphic name of all those nations to which they afterward gave the
designation of Germans.

Origin of the name Teutones.

The root of the word Teuton is thu or do, which originally repre-
sented the idea of " activity," of " living, procreating, nourishing,"
and also of " taming, educating, and ruling." From this root are
formed the following words, some of which are still used in the
popular dialects : Teut, " God, creator, ruler, father, nourisher"
(Thor, Tuisco) ; thut or thiud, " earth ;" tott, dote, dote, " godfather ;"
toda, " nurse ;" thiod, " father of the people," "lord, ruler, king," in
Gothic thiudans, in old Bavarian theodo ; diet, " people," in old Swe-
dish thiaut and thyd ; thiudinassus, in Gothic, "kingdom." (Fulda,
Wurzel-Wdrterbuch). The names of king and of people being both
derived from one root, which expresses the notion of ruling, is a
fact which proves that they belong to the language of a nation in
which there was neither absolute monarchical power, nor absolute
submission to their chiefs. This corresponds exactly to the politi-
cal state of the ancient Teutonic nations, among whom th£ sover-
eignty was in the people, and the executive power of the chiefs or
kings, although it was obeyed, was always regarded as derived from
the people. The idea of ruling, expressed by the root Teut, explains

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 245

why this word occurs so frequently in the names of the ancient Teu-
tonic kings, dukes, or chiefs, such as Teutoboch, Theudorix, Diorix,
Theodorix, Theodoric, Theodomir, Theodimir, Teutagon, &c. It
is likewise contained in the general name of all the Teutonic na-
tions, and in those of various tribes, as the Teutones, the Teutono-
arii, Thaifali, and the Dithmarses, or Dietmarses. It is visible in
" Teutoburger Wald," the name of that range of wooded mountains
which stretches from Detmold westward beyond Osnabruck, in which
is situated the Grotenburg, formerly " Teut" or " Teutoberg," with
the farm of Teutehof, where Varus was overthrown by Arminius ;
in "Detmold," " Doesburg," " Duisburg," " Deuz," and in a great
many other localities in Germany. Teuton is identical with Deutsche
or Teutsche (in low German Dutsch, in Dutch Duitsch, in Danish
Tysk, in English Dutch), which, from the remotest time, has been
and is still the general name of that part of the Teutonic nations
which we now call Germans, who considered the god or hero Tuisco
as their common ancestor. There are no direct proofs of the word
Teuton having had this extensive meaning in the earliest German
history, but this is, perhaps, the result of the political state of the
Teutonic nations, which were originally divided into numerous
tribes, each of which became separately known to the Romans. In
the twelfth, eleventh, and even as early as the tenth century, when
the difference between Franks and Saxons was well marked in the
German empire, these nations, each of which had its own language
and laws, never objected to being called by the general name of
Deutsche, or Teutones. At present there is no German tribe which
has the particular name of Teutones, but although the Germans are
composed of two very distinct nations, the High Germans and the
Low Germans, they call themselves Deutsche, and their language
Deutsch, though they do not understand each other. {Penny Cyclo-
pedia, vol. xxiv., p. 262.)

Treveri. A tribe claiming to be of German origin, and dwelling
between the Mosa (Meuse) and the Rhine. Their chief towns were
Augusta Treverorum, now Trier or Treves, the largest and most
opulent city of Gaul, the residence of the emperors from Constan-
tine the Great to Valens ; Noviomagus (Neumagen), Confluentes
(Coblentz), Bingium, and others c. 28

Triboci. (Written, also, Tribocci.) A German tribe, on the
left bank of the Rhine, and between that river and the Medioma-
trici and Lerici. Their chief city was Argentoratum, now Stras-
bourg c. 28

Tungri. A German tribe, the first that crossed the Rhine.

246 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX.

They became, subsequently, a powerful people in Germania Inferior.
They were probably the same with the Aduatici of Caesar . c. 2

Ubii. A German tribe, the allies of Caesar against the Suevi,
and subsequently transported by Agrippa (B.C. 38) to the left bank
of the Rhine. Their capital, called at first Oppidum Ubiorum, was
afterward named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis, when a Ro-
man colony had been established there, first by Agrippa, and subse-
quently by Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus and wife of the
Emperor Claudius. It is now Cologne. The Ara Ubiorum must
not be confounded with the Oppidum Ubiorum. The former was
an altar, probably erected to Augustus, like that at Lugdunum (Suet.,
Claud. , 2). Not far from Bonn is a hill called Godesberg, and it is
highly probable that this is the site of the Ara Ubiorum. That it
was somewhere near Bonn is pretty certain. The name Godes-
berg seems to indicate that the place was the seat of a religious
worship of some kind c. 28

Usipii. A German tribe, generally named in connection with the
Tencteri. Indeed, these two tribes usually go together in both ge-
ography and history. They frequently changed their settlements
When driven from their own possessions by the Catti, whom Caesar
calls Suevi (B. G., iv., 1, 4), after wandering in Germany for three
years, they came to the Rhine, and, having crossed it, seized upon
the lands and dwellings of the Menapii, Eburones, and Condrusi,
between the Rhine and Moselle. From this point they spread fur-
ther into Gaul ; but having been put to flight by Caesar, after a great
slaughter, the greater part of the remainder perished in attempting
to cross the Rhine. A part of the cavalry, which had not been en-
gaged in the battle, took refuge in the territories of the Sigambri.
When the Sigambri removed to Gaul, the Usipii and Tencteri be-
came masters of their possessions on the Lupia (Lippe). The
Usipii at first dwelt on the east bank of the Rhine, from its eastern
mouth to the Lippe, in the tract which the Chamavi and Tubantes
occupied before them ; but they gradually moved southward. In
the time of Claudius and Nero they dwelt between the Sieg and
the Lahn, where they were still in the time of Tacitus. In the
time of Ptolemy they inhabited the northern part of the Black For-
est. The name of the Usipii disappears from history after the time
of Agricola ; they became mixed up with the Alemanni. The
Tencteri lived south of the Lippe, in the region opposite Coin and
Bonn. At the time of the expeditions of Drusus and Tiberius, they

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 247

had removed eastward, but returned after the defeat of Varus :
and in the age of Tacitus, their possessions extended northward to
the Lippe, where they bordered on the Bructeri, and southward to
the Sieg. Their eastern boundary, according to Ptolemy, was
Mount Abnoba, or the ridge which runs northward between the
earldom of Mark and the duchy of Westphalia. {Ccbs., B. G., iv.,
1-18 ; Dio, xxxix., 47, 48 ; liv., 21, 32, 33.)

Vandalii. A German tribe, who lived at first on the shores of
the Baltic, between the Albis and Vistula, in Pomerania, and the
west of Poland ; but being forced to evacuate their possessions in
their wars with Aurelian and Probus, they first settled in Dacia and
Sarmatia, then in Pannonia and Gallia, and in the year 406, together
with the Alani, they migrated to Spain. Being afterward overpow-
ered by the Goths, they took refuge in Africa, and were there sub-
dued by Justinian in the year 534.

Vaxgioxes. A German tribe, dwelling on the Rhine, to the
east of the Treviri, and north of the Nemetes. Their capital was
Borbetomagus, called afterward Augusta Vangionum, and now
Worms c. 28

Varixi. A German tribe, placed by Ptolemy along the sea, from
the mouth of the Trave to the Warne, which last doubtless took its
name from them. They were afterward driven inland by Slavonian
tribes, and united themselves with the Saxons. We find some
tribes of the Varini in Thuringia, others on the banks of the Elbe,
and others in the neighborhood of the Rhine, where they were sub-
dued by the Franks. They also appear on the south of the Danube,
for they served as auxiliaries under Narses in Italy. Ptolemy calls
them Qapodrjvoi . . . . . . . . . c. 40

Venedi. A tribe who lived on the eastern bank of the Vistula,
round what is now the Gulf of Dantzic, and on the mountains called
from them ra OvevedcKa oprj, which separated them from the Got-
ones, in Poland, Lithuania, and the eastern part of Prussia. They
were afterward called Winidi, or Wendi. They belonged to the
Slavonians, who, after the fifth century, spread over the east of
Germany up to and beyond the Elbe, and whose posterity are still
found in Livonia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, Lusatia, Pomeraniay
Stiria, &c. A dialect of the Slavonic is still called the Wend lan-
guage. Many suppose that the Veneti in Italy are a branch of the
same people, who migrated southward, and that Vindelicia also
took its name from them.

STEMMA

THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS.

As the relations of the members of the Augustan family are ex-
ceedingly intricate, and a knowledge of them is essential for under-
standing many parts of Tacitus, a stemma of the family is subjoin-
ed, drawn up by Lipsius.

C. Octavius, the father of Augustus, was married twice. By his
first wife, Ancharia, he had Octavia the elder ; by his second wife,
Atia (the daughter of Atius Balbus and Julia, the sister of Julius
Caesar), he had Octavia the younger, and C. Octavius, afterward
Augustus. It is doubtful from which of the daughters the follow-
ing progeny springs.

250 STEMMA OF THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS.

I. Octavia was married twice, and had-

es. By C. Mar-
cellus,

b. By M. An-

tonius the
Triumvir,

3. Marcella, the younger.

1. M. Maj-cellus, m. (1) Pompeia, dr. of Sextus Pompeius, and (2)

Julia, dr. of Augustus — had no progeny. Died in his 17th
year, B.C. 23.

2. Marcella, the elder, m. twice, and had —

a. By M. Vipsanius C Children of names unknown (Suet., Aug.,
Agrippa, \ 63).

b. By lulus Anto- ( L. Antonius Africa-
nius Africanus, J nus (Annal.

son of the Tri-

44), father or un-
cle of

S. Antonius Africa-
nus ? (Annal., xiv.f
46.)

' 1. Antonia* the elder.
By L. Domitius
Ahenobarbus.

2. Antonia the young-
er.
By Drusus, brother
of Tiberius.

1. Domitia, m. Crispus Passienus 1

2. Domitia Lepida.

~ t>„ tvt it i • 1 Valeria Messallina,

' BI ^ Z m [ m. Claudius, the
B^rbatusMes. emperQr '^

8alla' J below.)

b. By Ap. Junius > N -
Silanus? lionet

3. Cn, Domitius, by ( N^0' QcM& ^
Agrippma. \ Poppgea

' 1. Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius.

ByofASPiDa'dr'} ^e below.

2. Livia, or Livilla.
m. C. Caesar, and afterward Drusus, son
of Tiberius, is betrothed to Sejanus
(Annal., iv., 40).

'1. Drusus.

Betrothed to dr.
of Sejanus (An-
nal, ill, 29. Su-
et, Claud., 27).
2. Claudia.
Antonia.
m. Pompeius M.,
killed by Claudius,
and Faustus Sulla.

1. Octavia.
Betrothed to L.

Silvanus, mar.
Nero, the em-
peror.

2. Claudius Britan-
nicus.

3. Claudius.
a. By Plautia Ur-
gulanilla.

b. By JEKa. Pe-<
tina.

c. By Valeria Mes- »
sallina.

' Tacitus makes Antonia the younger wife of Domitius (Annal., iv., 41 ; xii., 64;.

STEMMA GF THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS.

251

II. Augustus had no children by his other wives; by Scribonia,
daughter of L. Scribonius Libo, he had one daughter, Julia. Ju-
lia was married three times.

a. By M. Marcellus, son of C. Marcellus and Octavia— had no progeny.

'1. Caius Casar, adopted by Augustus, m. Livia, sister of German-

icus, died A.D. 4.
2. Lucius Casar, adopted by Augustus, betrothed to ^Emilia Le-
pida, died A.D. 2.

b. ByM.Vipsa-
nius Agrippa.

3. Julia.
By L. ^Rlmilius
Paulus, son of
the Censor.

'1. M. Mmilius Lepidus, m. Drusilla, dr. of

Germanicus.
2. Mmilia Lepida.

a. Betrothed to Claudius.

b. By Ap. Junius
Silanus.

[1. L. Silanus.

Betrothed to Octavia,
dr. of Claudius.

2. M. Silanus.
Proconsul of Asia.

3. Junia Calvina.
m. son of Vitellius.

c. By Drusus, son ) «,._._
ofGermanieus?^0116-

1. Nero, m. Julia, dr. of Drusus, son of Tibe-
rius (Annal., vi., 27).

2. Drusus, m. jEmilia Lepida (Annal., vi.,
40).

3. Caius Caligula.

4. Agrippina,

By Cn. Domitius, \ Nero.

5. Drusilla, m. L. Cassius and M. JEmilius
Lepidus.

6. Livia, or Livilla, m. M. Vinicius and Quinc-
tilius Varus ?

5. Agrippa Postumus, adopted by Augustus, put to death by Ti-
berius, A.D. 14.
c. By Tiberius, had none.

4. Agrippina.
By Germanicus. *

252

STEMMA OF THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS.

III. Augustus, after divorcing his former wife, Scribonia, married
Livia Drusilla, by whom he had no children. Livia, however,
had been previously married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom
she had two sons, Tiberius, afterward emperor, and Drusus, who
was bom three months after her marriage with Augustus.

1. Tiberius Nero, adopted by Augustus.
a. By Vipsania Agrip- f
pina, gr. dr. of Atti-
cus.

b. By Julia, dr. of
Augustus.

2. Drusus.

By Antonia the
younger.

Drusus, "J 1. Ti. Gemellus, killed by Caligula

By Livia, sister I {Suet., CaL, 25).

of Germani- j 2. — Gemellus (Ann., ii., 84 ; iv., 15).

J 3. Julia.

> None.

> See above.

a. By Nero, }

son of Ger- \ None,
manicus. )

b. By Rubel- "j Rubellius
lius Blan- IPlautus

dus (Ann., \ (Annal, xvi,
vi., 27). J 10).

THE END.

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Full text of "The Germania and Agricola of Tacitus, with English notes, critical and explanatory, from the best and latest authorities; the remarks of Bötticher on the style of Tacitus;"

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